Unit 6 Vocab

End of Napoleonic Era

April 1814

Napoleon is defeated by Quadruple Alliance and abdicates the throne

Quadruple Alliance

Great Britain, Austria, Prussia, and Russia

tasked with creating and enforcing peace

Congress of Vienna

1814-1815

Comprehensive peace settlement; want stability, equilibrium, order, and maintain official mechanism of balance of power


1. restore bourban dynasty in France with Louis XVIII (R: 1814 - 1824)
2. Constitutional charter of 1814: Makes France a constitutional monarchy but voting is restricting to the nobles and wealthy
3. Restores France to its 1792 boundaries (removes its “illegitimate” claims of land
4. Erect barriers to French aggression/expansion: join Belgium and Netherlands into Kingdom of the Netherlands (monarchy); gives Prussia additional territory along the Rhine
5. construct official mechanism of balance of power
6. GB gains some colonies and a few strategic outposts
7. Austria gains some more territory in Germany, Lombardy, and Venetia, but give up some in Belgium
8. Russia gets a smaller Polish Kingdom
9. Prussia gets 2/5 of Saxony

Talleyrand (Former french minister)

Wants to get France re-recognized as another great power at the Congress of Vienna

joins a secret alliance with GB and Austria against Russia and Prussia; compromise ensues after war is threatened

Territorial disputes during Congress of Vienna

Russia had already taken Finland and Bessarabia but wanted to restore and dominate a Polish Kingdom

Prussia was willing to give up some Polish territory but wanted Saxony

Castlereagh and Metternich feared an imbalance of power in Central and Eastern Europe and wanted to prevent this

Napoleon’s 100 Days

1815

Napoleon escapes from Elba, rallies an army, and re-establishes himself as ruler of France

Battle of Waterloo

June 1815

Napoleon is defeated for good; exiled to Sicily

World Powers realize they need to be harsher with France post revolution

2nd Peace of Paris

1815


1. Louis XVIII is re-restored as France’s ruler
2. France loses more territory around its borders
3. France pays 700 mil franc indemnity
4. France is occupied by allied armies for 5 years and has to pay for them

Congress System/Concert of Europe

Great powers agree to meet and consult periodically

Breaks down around 1830’s because great powers eventually go to war against each other

leads to the unification of Italy and Germany which throws off Europe’s balance of power completely

Age of Revolutions

1820-1848

Revolutions occur in areas that were conquered by Napoleon; influenced by ideals of French Revolution and liberalism

Period of Conservatism/Reaction

Dominated by Metternich

trying to revert society to the way it was back in 1789, but that’s impossible because Napoleon conquered most of Europe and spread French Revolution ideals

Holy Alliance

Want to suppress revolutionary movements (liberal and/or nationalist)

proclaim principle of active intervention

Formed by Metternich and Alexander I; consists of Russia, Prussia, and Austria

reactionary movement against liberalism and nationalism

principle of active internvention

intervene in foreign revolutions outside of the Holy Alliance

Revolutions in Spain and Kingdoms of the two Sicilis (S Italy)

After the Congress of Trappau, Austria intervened in S Italy and France intervened in Spain

* Alexander I offers to send 200k cossacks to Spain from Russia but is rejected
* GB opposes active intervention because they believe people can change their government and its only a problem if they attack other countries; begins supporting the Monroe Doctrine which Metternich is extremely against

Congress of Trappau

Austria will intervene is revolutions in S Italy and France in the one in Spain

Called by Metternich

Context for Monroe Doctrine in the US

After Spain called on the Holy Alliance to begin surpressing colonial revolutions in Latin America the US began opposing its involvement in the New World

Drafted the Monroe Doctrine which prevented the Holy Alliance from interfering in colonial revolutions in the New World unless they wanted to risk war with the US and GB

German Confederation

39 states with a very weak central government and assembly dominated by Austria and Prussia

liberalism and nationalism begins spreading in Germany; starts in German universities

Karslbad Decrees

1819

German states must supress liberal and nationalist movements

censorship crack down on universities

Metternich forces the German Confederation to adopt this

Austrian and its multi-national empire

Up to 15 different nationalities

* Germans (Austrians) dominate the empire
* Non-German groups outnumber Germans
* Non-German groups feel nationalism towards their own ethnic groups, not the Austrian empire; groups will eventually want their own countries which will tear the Austrian Empire apart

Conservatism

* favors absolute monarchy, hereditary, privileged aristocracy, tradition and continuity, and government sponsored official church
* oppose liberalism and nationalism; see them as the cause of all problems that occurred from 1789-1815

Metternich and Burke are its chief proponents

Classical Liberalism

* favor some form of representative government, constitutionalism, equality before the law, individual rights/freedoms/liberties
* support equality of opportunity (careers open to men of talent)
* oppose government intervention in the society or the economy

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economic liberalism - Adam Smith

* laissez-faire economics
* free market competition should drive the economy
* self-regulated free markets provide best chances of prosperity overall
* oppose regulation/restriction of trade and industry
* free market capitalism
* oppose mercantilism

Nationalism

belief that people with a common culture should be united in an independent country

derived from real of perceived cultural unity

nationalists want to translate cultural unity into political unity

Nationalism and liberalism

Often linked together; see people as soverign

common faith in nobility and creativity of ordinary people

belief that self government is only possible with common language, culture, etc.

self determination

people with a common culture should be free to pursue their destiny

Volkgises

Each person has their own worth expressed via language and culture

eventually promotes an “us” vs “them” ideology which is dangerous

French Utopian Socialsiam

Central ideas:


1. Government should rationally organize the economy; involved in economic planning
2. narrow the gap between the rich and poor
3. abolish private property

Concurred with French and Industrial revolutions

Eventually French Utopian socialists oppose laissez-faire economics and favor heavy government internvention

Count Henri de Sante Simon

French Utopian Socialist

organized society into “do-ers” who should plan the economy

goal of societal powers should be to improve conditions for the poor

Charles Fourrier (1772-1837)

French Utopian Socialist

“Perfect Optimal Social Units”: 5,000 acres of communal land with 1,620 workers (Phalynuxes)

wanted equality for women and for them to have the right to divorce

hated the idea of marriage

Louis Blance (1811-1882)

French Utopian Socialist

“The Organization of Work” (1839): workers should focus attention on universal adult male suffrage

politics could benefit workers; workers elect “beneficial” politicians who represent them and work towards their goals

governments should set up workers and factories and help middle class workers (Blanc eventually does this in France after the 1848 Revolution)

Pierre Joseph Prondhon (1809 - 1865)

French Utopian Socialist

“What is Property” (1840): says property is profits of stolen workers who are the source of all wealth; doesn’t want a government planned economy

Karl Marx

Wants to develop “scientific socialism” with ideas of Georg Hugel (1780-1831)

Believed history was propelled in a dilectical process of opposing social classes, not ideas

* class struggle between dominant and repressed class evolve into a new class of a new era
* currently in capitalistic era with bourgeoise vs proleteriat

Hugelian dialectic

History was propelled in a dialectical process of each era’s dominant sense of ideas (thesis) and its opposition (antithesis) which eventually battle it out and blend (Synthesis). and this synthesis would become the next era’s dominant ideology

“The Communist Manifesto”

Marx and Engels - 1844

Organizational document of the communist movement and call to arms of workers in the world

economic determinism

economics, class, and money determine everything

2 levels to society:


1. substructure: real economic base of society (classes)
2. superstructure: everything else (law, philosophy, etc.)

Marx is an economic determinist

labor theory of value

value is created by the labor used to make the product; products are wages stolen from the workers

Marx adds onto this idea from Adam Smith

Marx’s views on bourgeoise and proletariat conflict

* bourgeoise control the means of production while the proleteriat are exploited and don’t control means of production
* workers are “squeezed” for products, profits, services, etc.
* the number of bourgeoise increasing but ranks of proleteriat are increasing with degradation; process will eventually burst
* believes the increasingly exploited and impoverished have to develop class consciousness, but once they do they’ll rise up via violent revolution
* proletariat would take control via dictatorship until need fro control dissipates and a class society emerges; enters perfect equilibrium/end of history where private property is abolished and each person provides according to means and receives according to needs

GB post French Revolution

Traumatized by FR; aristocracy are hostile to change

After 1815: tory party (conservatives) control house of commons

1815: Corn laws are revised

Tory Reform

restricts foreign importation of grain; prices of corn rise

* Aristocracy is happy, but peasants and working class aren’t
* revised after FR because the price of corn was low

Revolt under Tory control of HOC

Revolts by radical reformers who propose changing the HOC to make it more representative of GB population

want to expand suffrage and redistribute seats

Tory and radical reform movement

1817: Tory government cracks down on radical reform movement; suspend rights of Habeus Corpus and right to assembly

Battle of Peterloo

Tory Reform

1819: huge peaceful protest by reformers

protest is ruthlessly broken up by troops

six acts

Tory Reform

Parliament strictly sensor the press and outlaws public meetings; GB becomes seemingly autocratic but this doesn’t last long because GB hasn’t historically been autocratic

Jeremy Benthem

Rationalist and gages reasonably different than strict Enlightenment thinkers; “reasonable” isn’t measured by conformity to natural laws but rather by utility

utilitarianism - new national reforms

utility

government actions that ensure the most benefit and pose the least amount of harm to the greatest amount of people

by 1820’s-1830’s, most GB reforms were influenced by utilitariansim

* favors laissez-faire economy but supports government schools
* supports political figures in both parties

John Stuart Mill

“On Liberty”: examines how relationship between an individual and society are regulated; should be based off where utility is max

* allows individual to do as he sees fit as long as it doesn’t harm others or society
* appeals to middle class and industrialists/businessmen because of the Laissez-faire approach
* believed government should protect laborers and working conditions

utilitarianism - new national reforms

Upper middle class and industrial reform in GB

buy into industrial reform because they want a place in the political system commensurate with their wealth; begin calling for a variety of liberal reforms

Tory attitude towards reform by 1820’s

1820’s: tory government is less frightened by reforms; younger tories beging voting with whigs (liberal party)

liberals begin calling for reform to parliament itself

reform bill of 1832

want to get rid of boroughs (districts with few voters but have representatives in HOC) and expand suffrage

* Whigs and Tories push reforms by convincing King to create enough seats in the HOL to pass bills
* King creates new titles of nobility and HOL backs down after initially blocking the law

effects of reform bill of 1832

shows real focus of power is in HOC and allows newer industrial areas to be represented

* rotten boroughs are eliminated so growing cities now have more representation - suffrage increases by about 50%
* not super influential because rich industrialists can now vote alongside upper middle class

GB approach to reform

making reasonable and timely reforms to diffuse momentum towards revolution

chartists

group of middle/working class workers who want a written constitution and universal adult male suffrage

want a representative parliamentary democracy

engage in mass petitions drives demanding universal adult male suffrage in 1839, 1842, and 1848

* parliament rejects all

john bright and richard cobder

join middle class manufacturers with those that want to abolish corn laws

Irish potato famine

1845: irish potato famine hits

food prices rich immensely in GB

1846: Robert Peele and other reform tories with the whigs want to pass a bill repealing corn laws

ten hours act

1847

passed by tory government and limit work days for women and children to 10 hours max

tories continue to demand better working conditions and regulatory factories (whigs are factory owners)

competition between aristocracy and middle classes for the interest of the lower classes

Ireland and GB during Irish Potato family

Ireland is ruled like a conquered province and uses a substance economy; very little roads and poor internal transportation system, so its difficult to transport emergency foods supplies

GB provides government relief too little and too late:

* slow emergency food supply
* enforce harsh eviction policy

Greek Revolution in 1820’s-1830’s

* rise in Greek nationalism which had been apart of the Ottoman empire since the 1400’s
* 1821: Alexander Ypsilanti leads a revolt
* great powers oppose revolts but support the Greek because of the love for their culture
* Russians feel obligated to protect fellow Orthodox religions
* romantic artists want to protect greek culture
* GB, FR, and Russia demand the Turks accept an armstice in Greece, but they refuse
* 1827: Battle of Navarino: GB, FR, and Russia crush Turk forces
* 1830: GB, FR, and Russia recognize Greek independence
* 1832: German prince becomes next Greek King

Spanish Revolution in 1820’s-1830’s

* 1820’s - 1830’s: series of ongoing revolts in Spain
* Jan 1820: mutiny of army under Colonel Rafael Riego because liberals were being persecuted by the King
* 1822: Congress of Verona: Metternich invokes the Holy Alliance; FR is to invade Spain and suppress the revolt
* GB withdraws from the Concert of Europe because they don’t want to interfere

Italian Uprisings (1820-1821)

* Summer 1820: secret liberal and nationalist societies revolt in Naples
* 1821: Congress of Libach: Austria suppresses Italian revolts

Decembrist Revolution

Dec. 9th, 1825: Alexander I dies, creating a succession crisis in Russia

Nicholas, a hardcore reactionary takes the throne

decembrists

group of moderately liberal army officers

staged a demonstration in St. Petersburg to stop the new King from rising to the throne but were crushed by the Russia military

Louis XVIII (R: 1814 - 1824) - French Revolutions up until 1848

* Louis XVIII granted the constitutional charter of 1814:
* peasants and middle classes to keep gains made in the FR
* intellectual and artistic freedom
* created new assembly, Chamber of Deputies
* suffrage was still narrowly limited, only 100k out of 30 mil people could vote
* after Napoleon’s 100 days he resisted conservative pressure to revoke these changes and return to an absolute monarchy

Charles X (R: 1824 - 1830) - French Revolutions up until 1848

* Wanted to restore old order in France
* repudiated constitutional charter
* stripped middle class of suffrage and rights
* 1830: tried to censor the press in an attempted palace in
* After July Days he’s forced to flee France

July Days

Urban middle classes and tradesmen revolt in Paris against Charles X and he’s forced to flee France

Louis - Philippe, Duke of Orleans and cousin of Charles X is made King

Louis Philippe (R: 1830-1848) - French Revolutions up until 1848

* Symbolically named King of the French people because his regime was based on popular consent
* also called Bourgeoise King because he styled himself as a middle class businessman and was considered friendly to aspirations of the middle classes
* Not a true revolution, but rather a dynastic change carried out to protect quasi-liberal institutions established in 1815
* Has a conservative reign which disappoints everyone

1848 Revolution in France

* Feb. 1848: Louis-Philippe abdicates a throne after a revolution occurs; people are bitterly disappointed by his conservative reign after he was expected to be a liberal
* Alphonse Lamartine becomes the head of the new provisional government
* Louis Blanc, utopian social, is also involved via government sponsored national workshops for the unemployed to work in
* April 1848: new elections and national assembly is dominated by moderate liberals
* shut down government workshops
* believed it was too far in the radical direction
* want to protect private property rights
* June Days revolt is crushed by the French army
* Louis Napoleon Bonaparte is elected president and then crowns himself emperor of France
* 1848 - 1852: Louis Napoleon Bonaparte rules as president of France
* 1852: Louis Napoleon overthrows the republic and sets up the 2nd empire; becomes emperor Napoleon III (R: 1852 - 1871)

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Revolt is ultimately unsuccessful

Alphonse Lamartine

head of France’s provisional government after 1848 revolution

grants universal male suffrage

moderately liberal and a romanticist

June Days

working class/radicals rise up and revolt in Paris after Louis Blanc’s national workshops are shut down

revolt is crushed by the French army

popular elections are held after and Louis Napoleon Bonaparte comes into power

1848 Revolution in Italy

* nationalism and liberalism spreads in Italy as a result of Austrian, Papacy, and French domination of italy
* constitutional regimes are set up
* Risorgimento: unifies Italy
* Revolts in Naples spread to other areas In Italy
* Lombardy and Venetia revolt against Austria
* Pope is driven out of Rome and a Roman Republic is set up (headed by G. Mazzini and G. Garibald)
* piedmont-sardina declares war on Austria

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Despite having temporary success initially, the Italian revolution ends in failure

Consequences of 1848 Revolution in Italy

1. austria crushes Piedmont
2. Piedomont-Sardina can’t settle in Italy
3. FR invade the Roman Republic and re-install the Pope albeit due to public pressure

Why did the 1848 revolution in italy fail?

1. rural peasants are conservative and don’t support the revolution
2. class divisions (pattern in other revolutions too)
3. lack of governing experience among revolutionaries

1848 Revolutions in Austria

* nationalism is a dividing force in Austria due to its multi-ethnic empire
* March 1848: Vienna: students (liberals) and workers (Radicals) revolt
* Metternich flees to Londong
* Emperor Ferdinand I (R: 1835 - 1848): grants moderately liberal constitution
* Army can’t restore order
* liberals are satisfied but radicals aren’t so they keep fighting
* Oct 1848: class divisions spur major problem; army is forced to lay siege to the city and Ferdinand I abdicates the throne
* Franz Joseph (R: 1848 - 1916): takes the throne after Ferdinand I and the revolution in Vienna is ended by the army

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Three different revolutions occur within proximity of each other in Austria:


1. Bohemia/Czech Republic
2. Italy
3. Hungary

issue of german unification also persists

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Ultimately all revolutions are unsuccessful

1848 Revolution in Bohemia

Czechs rise up for independence against austrians

June 1848: Revolution is crushed

1848 Revolution in Hungary

Hungarians want independence from Austrians

* March 1848: Louis Kossuth leads hungary in its revolt against the austrian empire

romanian and slavic groups (7/12 mil) are counter revolutionary because they believe they’ll be further opressed under Hungarian rule than Austrian

April 1849: Hungarian Republic is proclaimed but Nicholas I of Russia invades and crushes them

1848 Revolution/Unification in Germany

* March 1848: revolts in numerous German states occur after influenced by ideals of the French Revolution
* often liberal constitutions are granted

1848 Revolutions in Prussia

* King Frederick William IV (R: 1848 - 1861): conservative but initially granted moderately liberal constitution; once order is restored he eliminates the constitution and imposes a new, conservative, constitution
* institutes Reichstag (parliament) but only represents the jonkers + very wealthy
* couldn’t pass their own legislation and had to debate ones sent by King, but the King could still veto their opinions

Frankfurt Assembly

1848 - 1849

Comprised of middle-class liberal delegates from all over Germany who’re want to draft a constitution for a unified Germany

disagreements about:

* government - constitutional monarch or republic
* confederation or single unified state
* inclusion of non-Germans or Germans only
* Kleindeutsch (small) or Groedeutsh (large)
* including Prussia + Austria = large
* excluding Prussia + Austria = large
* want to crown Frederick - William IV as emperor of Germany but are rejected

Austria’s view of German unification

opposes unification of Germany because they want to keep their power and prevent nationalistic movements in their empire

intervene in Frankfurt Assembly when they ask Frederick - William IV to be emperor

Humiliation of Olmutz

1850

Frederick - William IV agrees to never plan to unify Germany again after Prussia is crushed by Austrian forces

Why does Frederick - William IV reject Germany’s offer to be emperor?

He believes in divine right; given right to rule by God and not the people/elected officials

Romanticism

A rectionary movement against the engligtenment that supported/favored:

* emphasis on emotion
* contemplation of nature
* history/emotional connections to the past
* cultural history
* nationalism
* intuition
* individualism
* imagination and creativity

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Opposed:

* over reliance on reason/rational thinking, empiricism, deism, rigid structure and neo-classicism, optimistic Enlightenment views of human nature

Romanticism’s origins

* “Sturum and Drang” (Storm and Stress) movement: led by Johann Wolfgang von Goethe (doctor, novelist, poet)
* “Sorrows of Young Werther”


* “Faust”: Doctor who is frustrated about not having total knowledge and sells his soul for it but isn’t happy because he knows everything but love and emotion
* later earns soul back, repents and reaches salvation

Romanticism and Poetry

romanticism argue that poetry shows humanity despite originally being belittled

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English poets:

* Byron
* Shelly and wife, Mary
* Coleridge
* Keats
* Wordsworth

Romanticism and connections with history/nationalism

* links differently than liberalism and nationalism
* most romantics oppose Republicans, favor living honorably, rulers/kingdoms
* Nationalism links to romanticism through language and literature
* Grimm brothers: examine German folktales
* Sir Walter Scott (England): collected old Borderland (border between England and Scotland) folk songs/talks, literature
* Shakespeare is also revived in Romantic era
* Russia - Alexander Pushkin: Publishes first written literature in Russian language
* France - Victor Huges: wrote “Hunchback of Notre Dame” and “Les Miserable” - focus on grostesque with hunchbank as many romanticists do

Romanticism and music

Music is the most famous expression of Romanticism

Orchestras’ sizes increase and play louder:

* new instruments and developments (piano)
* diverse forms/colors, etc.
* concept of virtuoso: someone who is so skilled at an instrument its mind-blowing

Beethoven is the pinnacle of Romantic music

Medicine

* some advancements are made but many still believe in traditional practices
* 4 humans and bloodletting
* demonic possessions
* poor sanitation practices
* Eventually becomes scientific and empirical after Scientific Revolution and Enlightenment
* 1796: Edward Jenner discovers inoculation to combat smallpox
* Urbanization and IR creates big public health problems
* rapidly built with poor planning
* no sewage systems, widespread contamination
* crowded; diseases spread rapidly

Edwin Chadwick

Collected statistics about the poor and concluded that filth in the city caused illness in the poor; explained how to mitigate these problems

* 1840s: “sanitary idea”: cities with sewage cities and clean water (Even if it means piping it in) will have healthier populations
* cities began implementting these ideas noticed favorable results
* didn’t explain why these issues caused though

Robert Koch

Named/identified different types of bacteria

* also realized with others that wounds had lots of bacteria around them, which caused them to become infected

Joseph Lister

created antiseptic solution to treat germs that’d cause infections

* alcohol and hydrogen peroxide
* use it to sterilize instruments later

Family life and its changes

* child rearing; relationship becomes more personal
* societal changes from agrarian to urban
* fewer # of kids
* child morality rates decrease; more living to adulthood
* psychological, can invest emotionally because its more likely kids will live
* easier to pay attention to smaller # of kids
* birth rates and mortality rates decrease
* changed perspectives about childhood
* illegitimacy explosion
* wives are viewed in terms of money and family via prostitution, middle, and upper class
* kinship tries remain stronger than before; family is more important than friendship
* emotional importance for home increased because women were caring for their own children
* breastfeeding is more common
* number of abandoned children decreased
* mother/parenting books increase

Sigmund Freud

1856 - 1939

Challenges the ideas of science (rationalism, empiricism) by placing emphasis on the unconscious mind (irrational); believes the unconscious mind shapes human behavior

* repressed childhood or infancy memories are a defense mechanism but can cause mental illnesses in later stages of life
* repressed memories of traumatic events
* usually trauma about parents or trauma-related sexuality
* can get stuck in anal stage of development

Sigmund Freud - parts of the mind

1. ID: unconscious, primal desire
2. Ego: outside persona
3. Superego: conscience

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A balanced mind has all 3 parts of the mind working healthily

Freud - “Thoughts From the Time of War and Death”

1915

WW1 Disillusioned Western society and its people from their optimistic viewpoint of the world

* War is driven by the Id
* Government lets people indulge in desires of ID because it was war, and that’s why WWI could be so horrific

Freud - “Civilization and its Discontents”

1930

Pay the price of repressing our primal urges to live and function within a society

Freud - “Civilization and its discontents”

pay the price of repressing our primal urges to live and function within a society

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Ideas make huge impact in:

* psychology
* advertising/marketing
* pushing back empiricism and rationalism
* literature; stream of consciousness; author writes out everything

changes for women

* women’s lives changes greatly due to industrialization
* work becomes more distinct and separate from husbands after 1850
* cult of domesticity
* women faced injustice if they tried to leave the private sphere for the public
* only women from very poor families worked outside the home
* single women also worked outside the home - this remiained unchanged
* women couldn’t own property or divorce

women’s movement

advocated for legal and property rights for women; equal rights to education; and eventually women’s suffrage

* front runners were middle class women and professional employment, wanted legal and property rights
* 1842: in GB women were granted full and equal property rights
* second runners were socialist women or married women who championed workers’ causes like liberating the working class and liberating women of the working class
* pankhurst (emily and her daughter) family were leading feminists in their era for suffrage

positivism

August Comte

applying the scientific method can solve all problems; leads to development of social sciences

access to statistical data allows for more conclusive theories

with positivism science seems to have the answer to limitless human progress

2nd Scientific Revolution

Late 19th Century - Early 20th Century

Different from 1st SR because there’s immediate practical applications

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biology - Pasteur, et al

thermodynamics - law of conservation of energy

chemistry - atomic weights; specialization (organic chem, physical chem, etc.); Madeleev: periodic table

electricity - michael faraday: concept of electromagentism; leads to dynamo, electric generator, etc.

Consequences of 2nd Scientific Revolution

1. scientific mindset emerges
2. belief in automatic progress
3. scientific methods are viewed as prestigious
4. optimism
5. public realized importance of science

social sciences

apply scientific methods of study to study of society, politics, and economics with statistical methods