Biology Final Exam Revision (Part A) - Vocabulary Flashcards

Vocabulary flashcards covering operons, gene regulation, mutations, muscle and bone physiology, and digestive system concepts from the notes.

Operons

Found in prokaryotes; groups of genes regulated together under a single promoter.

Hox genes

Homeobox genes in eukaryotes that determine body plan and specify which body parts grow at particular locations.

Insertion

Addition of nucleotides into a DNA sequence; can cause a frameshift if not in multiples of three.

Deletion

Removal of nucleotides from a DNA sequence; can cause a frameshift if not in multiples of three.

Point mutation

A mutation involving a change to a single nucleotide base.

Base substitution

A type of point mutation where one nucleotide base is replaced by another.

Missense mutation

DNA change that results in a different amino acid being coded.

Nonsense mutation

Codon change to a stop codon, truncating the protein.

Frameshift mutation

Insertion or deletion that shifts the reading frame of codons.

RNA interference

Regulatory mechanism where small RNA molecules prevent mRNA translation (not a mutation).

Hox gene function

Controls which body part grows at a given location along the body axis.

Chloroplast

Organelle where photosynthesis takes place in plant cells.

Chlorophyll

Pigment in chloroplasts that captures light energy for photosynthesis.

Red bone marrow

Site of hematopoiesis; produces red blood cells.

Yellow bone marrow

Fat storage within the medullary cavity of bones.

Bone functions — shape, support, framework

Bones provide shape, support, and a framework for the body.

Bone functions — protection

Bones protect internal organs (e.g., skull protects brain).

Bone functions — stability

Bones provide stability for the body.

Bone functions — movement

Bones enable movement through joints (articulation) and muscle attachment.

Bone functions — hematopoiesis

Bones make blood cells in red bone marrow.

Bone functions — mineral storage

Bones store minerals such as calcium and phosphorus.

Bone functions — muscle attachment

Bones provide attachment points for muscles.

Epiphysis

Growing end(s) of a long bone.

Diaphysis

Shaft or hollow interior of a long bone.

Periosteum

Outside covering of bone; tough fibrous membrane.

Long bones

Bones longer than they are wide (e.g., limbs); examples include arm and leg bones.

Short bones

Cubes-like bones (e.g., phalanges, carpals, tarsals).

Flat bones

Bones that are flat and thin (e.g., skull bones, scapulae).

Irregular bones

Bones with complex shapes (e.g., pelvis, vertebrae).

Cervical vertebrae

7 vertebrae in the neck region.

Thoracic vertebrae

12 vertebrae in the upper/mid back; attach to ribs.

Lumbar vertebrae

5 vertebrae in the lower back.

Sacrum

5 fused vertebrae forming part of the pelvis.

Coccyx

3–5 fused vertebrae at the tail end.

Deep fascia

Outer wrapping around the entire skeletal muscle; continues along its length.

Perimysium

Connective tissue sheath surrounding each muscle fascicle.

Epimysium

Connective tissue that surrounds the entire muscle and binds fascicles together.

Endomysium

Connective tissue surrounding each individual muscle fiber.

Skeletal muscle

Voluntary, attached to bones; striated.

Cardiac muscle

Involuntary muscle of the heart; striated.

Smooth muscle

Involuntary muscle in the walls of hollow organs; non-striated.

Involuntary muscles (heart)

Cardiac muscle; found in the heart.

Involuntary muscles (digestive tract)

Smooth muscle that drives peristalsis in the digestive tract.

Involuntary muscles (respiratory)

Muscles involved in breathing (e.g., diaphragm and intercostals) characteristically controlled involuntarily.

Actin

Thin filament; globular actin monomers form a helical strand with myosin-binding sites.

Troponin

Calcium-binding protein attached to actin; moves tropomyosin when calcium binds.

Tropomyosin

Protein that blocks myosin-binding sites on actin until moved by troponin.

Myosin

Thick filament with heads that form cross-bridges with actin during contraction.

Calcium ions (Ca2+)

Essential trigger for muscle contraction by binding troponin and displacing tropomyosin.

ATP

Energy source that powers myosin head movement and cross-bridge cycling in muscle contraction.

Ligament

Connects bone to bone.

Tendon

Connects muscle to bone.

Aponeurosis

Flat, sheet-like connective tissue connecting muscles or muscle to bone.

Digestive tract order

Mouth → Pharynx → Esophagus → Stomach → Small intestine (Duodenum → Jejunum → Ileum) → Large intestine (Colon) → Rectum → Anus.

Incisors

Cutting teeth; bite into food and cut it into pieces.

Canines

pointed teeth for tearing food.

Premolars

Teeth that chew and grind food.

Molars

Teeth that chew and grind food; located at the back.

Accessory organs — salivary glands

Glands that produce saliva to begin digestion.

Accessory organs — pancreas

Gland that secretes digestive enzymes and bicarbonate.

Accessory organs — liver

Organ that produces bile for fat digestion.

Accessory organs — gall bladder

Stores and concentrates bile; releases it into the small intestine.