AP Psychology All Units And Terms

Biological psychology

Biological psychology

The study of the links between biological and psychological process. (Genetic, neutral, hormonal)

Behavioral psychology

The study of observable behavior, and its explanation by principles of learning.

Psychodynamic psychology

A branch of psychology that studies how unconscious drives and conflicts influence behavior and uses that information to treat people with psychological disorders.

Social-cultural psychology

How behavior and thinking vary across situations and cultures.

Industrial-organizational (I/O) psychology

The application of psychological concepts and methods to optimizing human behavior in workplace.

Humanistic psychology

A historically significant perspective that emphasized human growth potential.

Cognitive psychology

The study of mental processes, such as occur when we perceive, learn, remember, think, communicate, and solve problems.

Human factors/engineering psychology

A field of psychology allied with I/O psychology that explores how people and machines and physical environments can be made safe and easy to use.

Correlation

A relationship between 2 variables, in which changes in one variable are reflected in changes in the other variable.

Experiment

Researcher controls all conditions and directly manipulate conditions

Random Selection/Sample

Equal chance of being selected to participate

Random Assignment

Equal chance of being chosen for either group

Independent Variable

The variable manipulated by the experiment

Dependent Variable

The measured outcome of a study; the response of the participants

Confounding variables

Have unwanted influence on the outcome of an experiment

Statistical Significance

(P<.05) The probability that the results of a study might be due to chance is less that 5%. (95% confident that the difference is real not due to chance)

Skewed

A representation of scores that lack symmetry around their average value

Longitudinal Studies

One group followed for long period of time

Cross-Sectional Studies

Cross Section studied at specific time

Ethical Guidelines

Obtain informed consent(right to leave)

Confidentiality concerning participants

Protect participants from harm and discomfort

Only use deception if no better alternative is available

Fully explain research after, debrief subjects on true purpose and answer questions

Myelin Sheath

Insulation fatty covering of some neuron’s axons. Facilitates electrical impulses, and increases communication.

Action potential

Nerve impulse caused by reversal in the electrical charge across axon (- to +)

Axon

Extended fiber that passes messages to other neurons. Info travels along this in the form of an electric charge called action potential.

Left Hemisphere Functions

Logic and language

RIght Hemisphere Functions

Facial, spatial, recognition

Broca’s area

Interferes with speech production

Wernicke’s area

Loss of ability to understand language

CT

X-ray structure

PET

Detects glucose in active circuits uses dye

FMRI

Moving picture of brain action; activity and structure

Sympathetic NS

Expend energy; arousal; fight or flight response (vitals go up, pupils dilate, digestion habits)

Parasympathetic NS

Conserve energy; calms you, returns you to homeostasis

Reuptake

recycling of neurotransmitters back into presynaptic neuron

SSRI(Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor)

Inhibits reuptake, so turns up volume of serotonin

Vestibular sense

Sense of body orientation with respect to gravity

Kinesthesia

Sense of body position and movement of body parts relative to each other

Absolute threshold

Minimum stimulation necessary for a stimulus to be detected (50% of the time)

Difference threshold

Minimum difference between two stimuli required for detection

Signal detection theory

Prediction of how and when we detect a faint stimulus amid background stimulation

Transduction

Conversion of on form of energy into another. Changing sights, sounds, smells into a neural code the brain can interpret (Happens in the Cochlea and Photoreceptors)

Binocular cue

A depth cue, such as retina disparity, that depends on the use of two eyes

Monocular cues

A depth cue, such as interposition of linear perspective, available to either eye

Classical Conditioning diagram

(UCS)→(UCR) Automatic

(NS)+(UCS)→(UCR) Acquisition

(CS)→(CR) Learn

Stimulus Generalization

Giving a CR to stimuli similar to the CS

Stimulus discrimination

Responding to CS but not to stimuli similar to the CS

Schedules of reinforcements

Fixed-Ratio, Variable-ratio, Fixed-interval, Variable-interval

Positive Reinforcement

Addition of a pleasant stimulus after a response that increases the probability of that response happening again

Negative Reinforcement

Removal of an unpleasant stimulus after a response that increases the probability of that response happening again

Shaping

Reward for behavior towards end goals

Observational learning

Learning by observing others

External locus of control

Perception that chance or outside forces outside of our control determine our fate

Internal locus of control

Perception that we control our own fate

Proactive Interference

New is blocked by old

Retroactive Interference

Old is blocked by new

Serial-Position effect

Tendency to best recall the first and last items in a list

Encoding Specificity Principle

Cues and context specific to a memory will be most effective in recalling it

Levels of Processing Theory

Info that’s move thoroughly connected to meaningful items in LTM will be better remembered.

Algorithm

Methodical, logical procedures that guarantee solving a problem

Heuristics

Simple thinking strategy allowing us to make judgements and solve problems efficiently, and faster

Functional Fixedness

Inability to perceive a new use for an object associated with a different purpose.

Mental set

Tendency to respond to a new problem in the manner used to a previous problem

Confirmation Bias

Ignoring/finding fault with info that doesn’t fit our opinions and seeking info with which we agree.

Language

Symbols and set of rules(grammer) that provide a vehicle for communication

Innateness (nativist) theory

Children learn language mainly by following an inborn program for acquiring vocab and grammar

Language acquisition device (LAD)

Structure in the brain innately programmed with some of the fundamental rules of grammar (Noam Chomsky)

Critical Period

Age by which task must be complete; 12 yo for language

Soma(Cell body)

Holds nucleus, interprets received signals

Neuron

Specialized cell that reasons to and send signals: basic building block of the nervous system

Dendrites

Branched fibers that receive and integrate messages conducting impulse towards the soma

Glial cells

Provides structural support, clean up on dead cells from the myelin, form new synapses, and plays a role in learning/memory

Axon Terminal (branches)/ Buttons

Tiny bubble like structure at the end of the axon, contains synaptic vesicles

Frontal lobes

Involved in speaking and muscle movements and in making plans and judgements.

Motor cortex

Rear of the frontal cortex and controls voluntary movements

Parietal lobes

Receives sensory input for touch and body position

Somatosensory

At the front of the parietal lobe and processes body touch and movements

Temporal lobes/auditory cortex

Includes auditory areas, each receiving info from the opposite ear

Occipital lobes/visual cortex

Area where you receive info from the visual fields

Association areas

Areas of the cerebral cortex that isn’t involved in primary motor or sensory functions, are involved in higher mental functions like learning, remembering, thinking, and speaking.

Personality

Characteristics pattern of thinking, feeling activating

Psychodynamic theories

Theories that view personality with a focus on the unconscious and the importance of childhood experiences

Psychoanalysis

Freud theory of personality that attributes thoughts and actions to unconscious motives and conflicts

Free association

A method of exploring the unconscious in which the person relaxes and says whatever comes to mind

Projection

Attributing one’s own thoughts, feelings, or motives to another

Displacement

Diverting emotional feelings from their original source to a substitute targer

Collective unconscious

Inherited reservoir of memory traces from our species history

Projective tests

Personality assessments instruments based on Freud’s concept of projecting hidden motives, interests, conflicts: ambiguous stimuli

Terror-management theory

A projective test in which people express their inner feelings and interests through their stories they make up about ambiguous scenes

Humanistic theories

Theories that view personality with a focus on the potential for healthy personal growth

Hierarchy of needs

Maslow’s pyramid of human needs, beginning at the base physiological needs

Self-actualization

Self-one of the ultimate psychological needs that arises after basic physical and psychological needs are met

Self-transcendence

The striving for identity, meaning and purpose beyond the self

Unconditional positive regard

Caring, accepting, non-judgemental attitude

Self-concept

Thoughts and feelings about ourselves; central feature of personality

Empirically derived test

A test created by selecting from a group of items those that discriminate between groups

Social-cognitive perspective

Views behavior as influenced by the interaction between people traits and their social context

Behavioral approach

Focuses on the effects of learning on our personality development

Reciprocal determinism

Process in which cognitions, behaviors, and environment mutually influence each other

Spotlight effect

Overestimating others noticing and evaluating our appearance, performance, and blunders

Self-efficacy

Our learned sense of competence

Self-esteem

One’s feelings of high or low self-worth