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Equality of Outcomes
A principle that suggests everyone should have the same level of wealth, resources, and opportunities, regardless of their starting point or circumstances.
Equality of Opportunity
The principle that all individuals should have the same chance to achieve success and access resources, regardless of their background or circumstances.
The “American Dream”
The belief that anyone can achieve success and prosperity through hard work and determination, regardless of their background.
Social Mobility in the U.S.
The ability for individuals or families to move up or down the economic ladder in the United States, often influenced by education, employment opportunities, and socio-economic factors.
Redlining & Discrimination
Redlining refers to the practice of denying services or housing to certain neighborhoods based on racial or ethnic composition, leading to systemic discrimination and socioeconomic disparities.
Collective Action Problems
Situations where individuals' self-interests conflict with the collective good, making it difficult to achieve mutual benefits. These problems often arise in public goods scenarios, where individuals may benefit from resources without contributing to their provision.
Prisoner’s Dilemma
A situation in game theory where two individuals must choose between cooperation and betrayal, leading to a worse outcome for both if they act in self-interest rather than working together.
Free- Rider Problem
A situation in which individuals benefit from resources or services without paying for them, leading to under-provision of those goods.
Tragedy of the Commons
A scenario in which individuals, acting independently according to their own self-interest, deplete shared resources, leading to overall detriment for the community.
Thought processes behind collective action problems
The cognitive challenges individuals face when trying to coordinate and cooperate for a common goal, often resulting in suboptimal outcomes due to self-interest.
Classical Liberalism
An ideology emphasizing individual freedom, limited government, and free markets, advocating for the protection of civil liberties and economic rights.
Classical Republicanism
A political philosophy that emphasizes the importance of civic participation, the common good, and the role of government in promoting virtue and moral character among citizens.
Hierarchy in political culture
The organization of power and authority within a society, influencing the distribution of resources and the relationship between individuals and the state.
Separation of Powers
A constitutional principle that divides government responsibilities into distinct branches to prevent any one group from gaining too much power, typically involving the executive, legislative, and judicial branches.
Checks and Balances
A system that ensures that no branch of government can dominate the others by giving each branch some measure of influence over the others, thereby maintaining a balance of power.
Federalist #51
An essay written by James Madison, addressing the need for checks and balances within government to prevent tyranny. It argues that the separation of powers is essential for maintaining liberty.
Factions (Majority & Minority)
Majority factions can oppress minorities; minority factions can hinder governance.
Federalist #10
An essay by James Madison that discusses the dangers of factions and advocates for a large republic to mitigate their effects. It argues that a diverse society can prevent any single faction from dominating.
Key features & flaws of the articles of confederation
The Articles of Confederation established a weak central government, lacking the power to tax and regulate commerce, leading to economic instability. Key features included state sovereignty and a unicameral legislature, but flaws such as the inability to enforce laws and a lack of executive authority hindered effective governance.
Shay’s Rebellion (1786-87)
An armed uprising in Massachusetts led by Daniel Shays, protesting economic injustices and the lack of government response to debt crises, highlighting the weaknesses of the Articles of Confederation.
Virginia Plan
A proposal at the Constitutional Convention that called for a strong national government with three branches and a bicameral legislature, favoring larger states by basing representation on population.
New Jersey plan
A proposal at the Constitutional Convention that aimed to maintain a unicameral legislature with equal representation for each state, favoring smaller states and seeking to amend the Articles of Confederation rather than replace them.
Connecticut “Great” Compromise
A plan proposed at the Constitutional Convention that established a bicameral legislature with proportional representation in the House and equal representation in the Senate, balancing the interests of both large and small states.
Three-fifths clause
A provision in the U.S. Constitution that counted each enslaved person as three-fifths of a person for purposes of representation and taxation, reflecting the compromise between slave and free states.
Antifederalists vs. Federalists
The Antifederalists were opponents of the Constitution who favored stronger state governments and individual liberties, Federalists supported a strong central government and the ratification of the Constitution, advocating for a more unified nation.
Article I
The section of the U.S. Constitution that establishes the legislative branch, outlining the powers, responsibilities, and structure of Congress, which consists of the House of Representatives and the Senate.
Article II
The section of the U.S. Constitution that establishes the executive branch, outlining the powers and duties of the President and the process for their election.
Article III
Establishes the judicial branch of the US government, including the Supreme Court, and outlines its powers and jurisdiction.
Article IV
The section of the U.S. Constitution that addresses the relationships and responsibilities between the states and the federal government, including the Full Faith and Credit Clause.
Article V
Details the process for amending the Constitution, outlining how changes can be proposed and ratified.
Article VI
The section of the U.S. Constitution that establishes the supremacy of federal law over state law and mandates an oath of office for all government officials.
Article VII
The section of the U.S. Constitution that addresses the ratification process of the Constitution itself, specifying how many states must approve it for it to take effect.
The constitutional amendment process (article v)
is the method by which changes can be made to the U.S. Constitution, requiring proposals by either Congress or a convention and subsequent ratification by the states.
13th amendment
The constitutional amendment that abolished slavery and involuntary servitude in the United States, except as punishment for a crime.
14th amendment
The constitutional amendment that grants citizenship to all persons born or naturalized in the United States and ensures equal protection under the law.
17th amendment
The constitutional amendment that established the direct election of U.S. Senators by popular vote, replacing the previous system where they were chosen by state legislatures.
22nd amendment
The constitutional amendment that limits the president to two terms in office.
Federalism
A system of government where power is divided between a central authority and constituent political units, such as states.
Confederacy
A union of sovereign states or groups that come together for a common purpose, often with a focus on preserving their independence.
Unitary System
A system of government in which power is centralized in a single national authority, with little or no power granted to local governments.
Federalist #46
An essay written by James Madison, part of The Federalist Papers, that argues for the advantages of a federal system of government and addresses concerns about the potential for tyranny.
McCulloch v. Maryland (1819)
A landmark Supreme Court case that established the principle of federal supremacy over state laws and affirmed the constitutionality of the Second Bank of the United States.
Necessary and Proper Clause
A constitutional provision that grants Congress the power to make all laws necessary and proper for carrying out its enumerated powers.
Enumerated powers vs. Police powers
Enumerated powers refer to the specific powers granted to Congress by the Constitution, while police powers are reserved to the states to regulate for the health, safety, and welfare of their citizens.
Dual Federalism (“Layer Cake”)
A concept of federalism where state and national governments operate independently within their own spheres of authority, akin to distinct layers of a cake.
Modern Federalism
A system of federalism where the national and state governments share responsibilities and collaborate on various policy areas, rather than operating independently.
Federalism Analogies
Comparisons used to explain federalism, such as "marble cake" or "layer cake" models, illustrating the relationship between state and national governments.
Fiscal Federalism
A concept of federalism that focuses on the financial relationships between different levels of government, particularly how funds are allocated and spent across federal, state, and local governments.
Coercive Federalism
A form of federalism where the national government pressures states to implement certain policies through mandates or conditions, often tied to funding.
New Federalism
A political philosophy that seeks to return power and responsibility to state governments, emphasizing a more decentralized form of governance and reducing federal intervention.
Unfunded Mandates
Regulations or policies imposed by the federal government on state governments without providing funding to cover the costs.
Categorical vs. Block Grants
Categorical grants are funds provided by the federal government for specific purposes, while block grants offer states more flexibility in how they use federal funds for broader categories of programs.
Laboratory of Democracy
The concept that states can experiment with policies and solutions to social and economic issues, serving as a testing ground for new ideas before they are adopted at the national level.
Cultural Peace (Federalsim)
A principle in federalism where diverse cultural groups coexist peacefully within a federal system, promoting mutual respect and understanding.
Race to the bottom
A phenomenon in which states or jurisdictions competitively lower standards or regulations, particularly in areas like labor and environmental protections, to attract businesses and investment.
Vote with your feet
The act of leaving a situation or moving to another area in order to express dissatisfaction with policies or conditions, often used in the context of economics and public choice.
