Global Politics Last Exam

Contentious Politics

is political activity that is at least in part beyond institutional bounds. It occurs when ordinary people, often in league with more influential citizens, join forces in confrontations with elites, authorities, and opponents. 

Social Movements

Groups with loosely defined structures that unite people who feel excluded from formal institutions, aiming for major socioeconomic or political change through sustained, noninstitutional collective actions.

Theory of relative deprivation

A group or individual’s belief that they are not getting their share of something of value relative to their expectations or to what others have is likely to lead to demands for change and collective action. 

The logic of collective Action (Olson)

argued that self-interested individuals tend to free-ride, benefiting from collective efforts without contributing themselves, which makes collective action unlikely unless specific incentives are in place. His work reframed collective action as a puzzle, showing that shared grievances alone are not enough to guarantee mobilization. This shifted the focus to a crucial question: under what conditions and through what processes are individual motives effectively transformed into organized group action?

Political Process Theory

Focuses on how and when collective action occurs, recognizing that grievances alone are insufficient. It emphasizes the importance of political opportunities, mobilization structures, and the framing of issues in understanding the dynamics of social movements.

political opportunity structures

Changes or openings in the political system that enable mobilization

mobilizing structures

Organizations, leaders, and networks that enable people to organize and act.

Framing processes

How people interpret, assign meaning to, and emotionally react to political conditions.

Moral shock

Sudden threats to core values can trigger grievances and prompt action.

process benefits

People gain meaning and satisfaction from participating in causes, helping overcome the collective action problem.

Role of meaning

How individuals interpret grievances shapes the timing and form of collective action.

ACT-UP

Deborah B. Gould argues that emotions like grief and rage are central to social movements, not just strategic tools for mobilization. Critiquing political process theory’s focus on rational actors, she shows how emotional experiences deeply shape activism, movement sustainability, and strategic choices. Using the militant AIDS activist group ACT UP as a case study, Gould describes how activists transformed collective grief over mass deaths from AIDS—compounded by government neglect—into public expressions of anger and defiance. Actions like scattering ashes on the White House lawn and holding political funerals dramatized the crisis and galvanized broader participation. Gould demonstrates that ACT UP’s success lay not just in strategic messaging but in reshaping how people felt about the crisis, turning private mourning into powerful public protest. She calls for reintegrating emotions into social movement theory to better capture the true complexity of protest dynamics.

Political Violence

is the use of physical force by nonstate actors for political purposes, distinguishing it from state-led war or repression. It includes riots, terrorism, rebellions, civil wars, revolutions, and genocide.

Terrorism

is the premeditated use or threat of violence against civilians by nonstate actors to create fear and influence political outcomes

Revolutions

are rapid, mass-driven overthrows of governments aiming for major political and social change. They are explained by grievances, state weakness, organized mobilization, powerful ideologies, and international influences.

Color revolutions

Revolutions occur in moderately unequal societies with strong urban sectors, where elites mobilize groups for nationalist and democratic goals, leading to regime change through protests and elections without radicalization or civil war.

Radical revolution

These revolutions occur in deeply unequal societies, where radical leaders promote class-based or ideological agendas targeting elites. Civil or international wars often empower extremists, leading to authoritarian regimes, major societal restructuring, and prolonged instability.

Mossadaq

Iran’s elected prime minister, sought to nationalize oil, alarming Britain and the U.S., who feared Soviet influence. A 1953 CIA-backed coup removed him, fueling Iranian resentment over foreign interference and strengthening the Shah’s rule.

Shah Pahlavi

ruling from 1941, was seen as a Western puppet, angering Iranians. He led the White Revolution in 1963, turned Iran into a single-party monarchy in 1975, and crashed the economy by 1977. Public outrage peaked on Black Friday (1978), when the military killed hundreds of peaceful protesters. Facing massive unrest, the Shah fled Iran on January 16, 1979.

Khomeini

opposed the Shah’s White Revolution, was arrested, and later exiled, where he fueled dissent through Iran’s religious networks. After the Shah fled, Khomeini returned, purged the Shah’s supporters, eliminated Western influence, and established the Islamic Republic of Iran on April 1, 1979. He became the Supreme Leader and implemented strict Islamic laws.

Major factors contributing to the Iran Revolution (Kurzman)

because of a sudden collapse in the Shah’s perceived power. Widespread protests, strikes (especially by oil workers), and the erosion of loyalty among elites and the military created a sense that revolution was not only possible but inevitable. People's belief in the regime’s invincibility shattered, leading to a rapid surge in participation. Kurzman emphasizes that it was not a long buildup of revolutionary organization, but rather a dramatic shift in collective expectations and perceptions that triggered the revolution.

Arguments for restricted borders

• Immigration can lower wages and strain government budgets (education, healthcare).

• It may prevent countries from adequately serving their own citizens.

• Some argue it helps preserve national culture and reduces congestion.

• Sending countries suffer from brain drain and loss of caretakers.

• Open borders mainly benefit the wealthy through access to cheap labor.

Arguments for open borders

• Lowers costs of goods and services and boosts productivity.

• Encourages diversity and attracts skilled migrants.

• Supports ethical and moral obligations to help people.

• Remittances benefit sending countries.

• Strengthens international ties.

Prevention Through Deterrence

According to Jason De León, this is a U.S. border enforcement strategy that pushes migrants into dangerous, remote areas (like deserts) by heavily policing safer crossing points. The idea is that the harsh environment will deter people from attempting to cross by making the journey extremely risky, even deadly.

Refugees

• Forced to flee their country due to persecution, war, or violence.

• Protected under international law (1951 Refugee Convention).

• Cannot safely return home.

Migrants

• Choose to move, often for economic reasons, education, or family reunification.

• Not necessarily fleeing immediate danger.

• Movement is usually voluntary and not always protected under international law.

Farming Coca in Boliva

The drug trade functions not just as market activity but as a global network shaped by local social and economic relationships. In Bolivia’s Chapare region, Grisaffi shows that coca and cocaine paste production is deeply tied to community reciprocity. Local agricultural unions, while not criminal, indirectly support the drug economy by resisting state intervention and preventing large trafficking organizations from dominating. As a result, the drug trade there contributes to economic prosperity, social cohesion, and political stability, rather than leading to widespread violence and chaos.

Slow violence

According to Rob Nixon, this is a form of violence that occurs gradually and invisibly over time, often without immediate dramatic effects. It includes things like environmental destruction, climate change, and toxic exposure—harm that accumulates slowly and disproportionately affects the poor and marginalized. Unlike spectacular, fast violence, slow violence is harder to see, harder to narrate, and often ignored.

climate change

Long-term alterations in temperature and typical weather patterns. It can result from natural processes or human activities, and disproportionately impacts vulnerable populations.

Climate change drivers

Factors contributing to climate change, such as fossil fuel consumption, deforestation, and industrial emissions, which enhance greenhouse gas concentrations in the atmosphere.

Resource nationalism

is the belief that a country's natural resources, such as oil and minerals, should be controlled by the national government rather than foreign corporations. The goal is to use resource wealth to fund development, reduce poverty, and reinforce national sovereignty. In Ecuador, leaders like Rafael Correa embraced this approach by nationalizing greater control over the oil industry and channeling revenues into social programs, infrastructure, and poverty reduction initiatives. This strategy aimed to make the country less dependent on foreign interests and to use its natural wealth to benefit the broader population.

anti-extractivism

is a movement that opposes large-scale resource extraction due to its environmental destruction, social disruption, especially for Indigenous communities, and long-term unsustainability. In Ecuador, many Indigenous groups and activists advocate for alternatives to extractivism, emphasizing environmental protection, community rights, and more sustainable forms of development.