Copy of Untitled Notebook (1) (1)-compressed (1).pdf - Enzymes are proteins that catalyze chemical reactions. They bind to substrates at their active

Enzymes

Proteins that catalyze chemical reactions and lower activation energy.

Active Site

The region of an enzyme where substrates bind and reactions are catalyzed.

Induced Fit Mechanism

The process by which an enzyme changes shape to accommodate the substrate.

Catalytic Groups

Specific groups within enzymes that contribute to the catalytic process.

Optimal Temperature and pH

The ideal temperature and pH range that maximize enzyme activity.

Michaelis-Menten Kinetics

The relationship between substrate concentration and reaction velocity.

Exergonic Reactions

Reactions that release energy.

Endergonic Reactions

Reactions that absorb energy.

Cellular Respiration

The process by which cells convert organic molecules into ATP.

Glycolysis

The first stage of cellular respiration where glucose is broken down.

Warburg Effect

The reliance of cancer cells on glycolysis for energy production.

Enzyme Inhibitors

Substances that can block enzyme activity through competitive or non-competitive mechanisms.

Allosteric Regulation

Modification of an enzyme's activity through changes in its shape.

Citric Acid Cycle

A series of enzymatic reactions that generate ATP, NADH, and FADH2.

Electron Transport Chain

A sequence of proteins in mitochondria that generates ATP via oxidative phosphorylation.

ATP Synthase

An enzyme that uses the proton-motive force to convert ADP to ATP.

Cofactors

Non-protein helpers that assist enzymes in catalysis.

Feedback Inhibition

A regulatory mechanism where the end product of a pathway inhibits an upstream process.

Chemiosmosis

The process of ATP synthesis using the H+ gradient across the mitochondrial membrane.

Redox Reactions

Reactions involving the transfer of electrons between reactants.

Proton-Motive Force

The gradient of H+ ions that powers ATP synthesis.

Fermentation

An anaerobic process that generates ATP without oxygen.

Autotrophs

Organisms that produce their own food through photosynthesis.

Heterotrophs

Organisms that obtain food by consuming other organisms.

Calvin-Benson Cycle

The process converting light energy into sugars during photosynthesis.

Hydrogen Bonds

Weak interactions responsible for the unique properties of water.

Acids

Substances that release H+ ions in solution.

Buffers

Substances that help maintain pH balance by neutralizing acids and bases.

Carbonic Anhydrase

An enzyme that catalyzes the formation of carbonic acid from CO2 and water.

Chloride Shift

The process that helps maintain ion balance in red blood cells during gas exchange.

Nucleic Acids

Macromolecules that store and transmit genetic information.

Fluid Mosaic Model

A model describing the structure of cell membranes as a mosaic of diverse proteins.

Passive Transport

Movement of substances across a membrane without energy input.

Active Transport

Energy-requiring process to move substances against their concentration gradient.

Endomembrane System

A system regulating protein traffic and metabolic functions in eukaryotic cells.

Lysosomes

Digestive compartments in cells that recycle organelles and macromolecules.

Prokaryotic Cells

Cells that lack a nucleus and membrane-bound organelles.

Eukaryotic Cells

Cells that have a nucleus and membrane-bound organelles.

Mitochondria

Organelles responsible for energy conversion through cellular respiration.

Chloroplasts

Organelles involved in photosynthesis.

Cytoskeleton

A network of fibers that helps maintain cell shape and organization.

Metabolic Pathways

Series of chemical reactions catalyzed by enzymes.

Entropy

A measure of disorder or randomness in a system.

ATP (Adenosine Triphosphate)

The primary energy currency of cells.

Substrate Specificity

The ability of enzymes to selectively bind to specific substrates.

Enzyme-Substrate Complex

The intermediate formed when an enzyme binds its substrate.

Catalysis

The acceleration of a chemical reaction by a catalyst.

Transition State

A high-energy state during the conversion of substrates to products.

Photorespiration

A wasteful pathway that occurs when the Calvin Cycle enzyme reacts with oxygen instead of carbon dioxide.

C4 Plants

Plants that utilize a modified biochemical pathway to fix carbon efficiently in hot climates.

CAM Plants

Plants that open their stomata at night to minimize water loss in arid conditions.

Hydrophobic Interactions

Interactions that drive non-polar molecules to aggregate in water.

Chemical Bonds

Forces that hold atoms together in molecules.

Nuclear Envelope

Double membrane that surrounds the nucleus in eukaryotic cells.

Ribosomes

Molecular machines that synthesize proteins from amino acids.

Transport Proteins

Proteins that assist in moving substances across a cell membrane.

Cell Wall

A rigid layer that provides structural support and protection for plant cells.

Intercellular Communication

Processes that allow cells to communicate with one another.

Tight Junctions

Connections between cells that prevent leakage of substances.

Glycolysis Products

The end products of glycolysis include ATP, NADH, and pyruvate.

NADP+

An electron carrier involved in the light reactions of photosynthesis.

Photosystem II

The protein complex that aids in the light reactions and helps in splitting water.

Photosystems

Protein complexes in chloroplasts that capture light energy during photosynthesis.

Calvin Cycle Stages

The Calvin Cycle consists of carbon fixation, reduction, and regeneration phases.

Energy Harvest Efficiency

The efficiency with which cells convert glucose into usable energy.

Cell Fractionation

A technique used to separate cellular components for study.

Vesicles

Small membrane-bound compartments involved in transport within cells.

Plasmodesmata

Microscopic channels in plant cells that enable transport and communication.

Fluidity of Membranes

The ability of membrane components to move laterally within the layer.

Endoplasmic Reticulum

An organelle involved in synthesis and processing of proteins and lipids.

Golgi Apparatus

An organelle that modifies, sorts, and packages proteins and lipids.

Peroxisomes

Organelles that detoxify harmful substances and metabolize fatty acids.

Glycoproteins

Proteins that have carbohydrate groups attached to them, involved in cell-cell recognition.

Chemical Properties of Water

High specific heat, cohesion, and solvent abilities, critical for life.

Acid-Base Balance

The regulation of pH levels in biological systems.

Cellular Respiration Steps

Includes glycolysis, the citric acid cycle, and oxidative phosphorylation.

Chloroplast Function

The site of photosynthesis in plant cells, converting light energy into chemical energy.

Transcription

The process of copying genetic information from DNA to RNA.

Translation

The process of decoding mRNA into a polypeptide chain.

Proteins' Functions

Catalysis, structure, transport, communication, and signaling in biological systems.

Hydrophilic Substances

Substances that interact well with water; often soluble in water.

Hydrophobic Substances

Substances that do not interact well with water; often insoluble.

Selective Permeability

The property of membranes that allows some substances to pass while blocking others.

Polarity in Molecules

The distribution of electrical charge over the atoms in a molecule.

Cellular Growth

Increase in the number of cells or size of cells.

Intracellular Digestion

The process of breaking down food particles inside cells to extract nutrients.

Waste Disposal Mechanisms

The systems by which cells eliminate unnecessary or harmful substances.

Autophagy

The process by which a cell degrades and recycles damaged organelles.

Extracellular Matrix

A complex network of proteins and carbohydrates outside cells that provides support.

Signal Transduction

The process by which a cell responds to external signals.

Nutrient Storage

The process by which cells store essential molecules and energy reserves.

Role of Oxygen in Respiration

Oxygen is the final electron acceptor in the electron transport chain.

Fatty Acids

Building blocks of lipids, essential for energy storage and membrane structure.

Cell Cycle

The series of phases that a cell goes through to divide and replicate.

Gene Expression Regulation

Control of the timing and amount of gene expression in cells.

Metabolism

All chemical reactions that occur within an organism to maintain life.

Kreb's Cycle Products

Produces ATP, NADH, and FADH2 during aerobic respiration.

Protein Synthesis Sites

Ribosomes are the cellular sites for protein synthesis.

ATP Hydrolysis

The reaction that breaks down ATP to release energy for cellular work.

Enzyme Specificity,

The unique ability of an enzyme to catalyze a specific reaction.