intro to sociology key terms

sociological imagination

an awareness of the relationship between a person's behavior and experience and the wider culture that shaped the person's choices and perceptions

seeing the general in the particular

recognizing general patterns in what initially appear to be individual outcomes

social facts

the laws, morals, values, religious beliefs, customs, fashions, rituals, and cultural rules that govern social life

social institution

social structures that have patterns of beliefs and behaviors that meet social needs

auguste comte

considered the founder of sociology

harriet martineau

helped introduce sociology to the English-speaking world by translating auguste comte’s work from french into english

karl max

argued that society is shaped by conflict between social classes, particularly between those who own resources and those who work for them

herbert spencer

applied ideas from biology to society and believed societies evolve over time

émile durkheim

emphasized the importance of social facts, which are patterns of behavior and ways of thinking that exist outside individuals and influence their actions

jane addams

combined sociological research with social action, which involves using sociological knowledge to address social problems. their research allowed them to advocate for immigrant rights, child labor laws, and women’s suffrage

max weber

best known for his book The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism, which analyzes the relationship between the economy and religion

w.e.b. du bois

the first Black man to earn a doctorate from Harvard, studied race, inequality, and identity

auguste comte

credited with introducing the term sociology

argued that society could be studied scientifically

believed that identifying patterns in social life could help improve society

proposed applying the rigorous scientific method

harriet martineau

emphasized the importance of studying everyday life, specifically domestic life, including family roles and social inequality

believed sociologists should examine how social conditions affect different groups in unequal ways, particularly the lack of women’s rights

karl max

focused on social conflict

ideas influenced the conflict approach

herbert spencer

argued that social institutions develop naturally and supported a hands-off approach to social change

said the concept of survival of the fittest (charles darwin) applied to human society as well, stating that it was natural for some people to be poor and others to be rich

émile durkheim

believed sociologists should study these patterns scientifically to understand how societies maintain order

well-known book Suicide: A Study in Sociology highlighted how much society and social integration can influence even this most seemingly individual act

attempted to demonstrate the effectiveness of his rules of social research

examined suicide statistics in different police districts to identify differences between Catholic and Protestant communities

jane addams

worked directly with communities to improve living and working conditions and believed understanding society required engagement with real people and real conditions

max weber

was interested in studying how economic transition led to rationalization and the development of bureaucratic organizations

was critical of rationalization, believing it created an “Iron Cage” of systems in which people could become trapped in rigid bureaucratic processes

w.e.b. du bois

introduced the concept of double consciousness, which describes the experience of viewing oneself through multiple social identities at the same time, particularly in the context of race

emphasized using sociology to understand and address social injustice

industrialization

the process by which societies shift from agricultural work to factory-based and machine-driven production

social conflict

a tension and struggle between groups with unequal access to power and resources

social classes

a way to group people based on income, wealth, education, and occupation

conflict perspective

a sociological perspective that examines inequality and competition within society

social change

significant changes in social patterns, institutions, or relationships over time

positivism

the belief that society can be studied using scientific methods to discover patterns

social facts

patterns of behavior, beliefs, and social structures that exist outside the individual and exert influence or control over people within a society

mechanical solidarity

social unity based on interdependence created by specialized roles in complex societies

double consciousness

the experience of viewing oneself through multiple social identities, often referred to as “twoness” especially described by w.e.b. du bois in relation to race

sociology

the scientific study of society and social relationships

society

a group of people living together in a community

psychology

the study of how individuals think, feel, and behave, focusing on mental and emotional processes

anthropology

the study of human cultures and ways of life, often comparing traditions, beliefs, and social practices across different cultures

was known for his critique of capitalism and highlighted wasteful displays of wealth for status, call conspicuous consumption, and his theory of the leisure class

thorstein veblen

introduced the looking-glass self, explaining that people develop their self-identity by interpreting how others see and respond to them

charles horton cooley

developed the foundation of symbolic interactionism as well as the stages of development of the self, which focuses on how the self emerges through social experience, communication, and taking the role of the “other”

george mead

studied groups and decision-making. coined the term groupthink

irving janis

theory

an evidence-based explanation of how and why social life works that can be tested

micro-level perspective

a way of studying society by focusing on small-scale, everyday interactions between people

macro-level perspective

a way of studying society by focusing on large social systems and structures that shape people’s lives

functionalist perspective

a view that society is made of interdependent parts that work together to maintain stability and order

conflict perspective

a view that society is shaped by inequality and ongoing competition for power and resources

symbolic interactionalist perspective

a view that society is created through daily interactions and the shared meanings people give to symbols and behavior

functions

the results or effects of an institution

manifest functions

intended and expected resultsl

latent functions

unintended and unexpected results

resource

anything valuable that individuals or groups compete for because it helps them meet needs, gain advantages, or increase power

feminist theory

a theory that comes from the conflict perspective and focuses on how social structure and patriarchy create gender inequality in society

gender inequality

unequal access to resources based on gender

patriarchy

a system where men hold more power

symbol

anything that carries meaning and helps people communicate

social exchange theory

a theory that comes from the symbolic interactionist perspective and contends that social behavior results from a process of exchange based on maximizing personal benefits and minimizing personal disadvantages

equity

the quality of being fair and just

applied sociology

using sociological knowledge to solve real-world social problems

clinical sociology

using sociological knowledge to directly work with people or organizations to create change

interventions

planned actions used to improve social situations or outcomes

scientific method

systematic process used by researchers to ask questions, collect date, and test explanations using observable and measurable evidence

hypothesis

a testable statement that predicts a relationship between variables based on theory or prior research

descriptive research

research that describes social patterns or behaviors without explaining why they occur

explanatory research

research that seeks to explain social phenomena and why we see certain social patterns

qualitative research

research that uses non-numerical data to understand social meanings and experiences

quantitative research

research that uses numerical data to measure and analyze social phenomena

data

information collected to answer a research question

primary data

data collected directly by a researcher for a specific study

secondary data

data that already exists and was collected by others

surveys

a research method that collects data by asking people a series of questions

field research

a research method that collects data in natural social settings

participant observation

a field research method in which the researcher participates in a group while observing behavior

ethnography

a field research method involving long-term immersion in a social community

case study

an in-depth analysis of a single individual, group, or event

experiments

a research method that tests cause-and-effect relationships by manipulating variables

secondary data analysis

a research method that analyzes data previously collected by other researchers or organizations

content analysis

a research method that analyzes written, visual, or audio materials to identify patterns, themes, meanings, or representations

tuskegee syphilis study

an unethical u.s. study (1932-1972) in which black men with syphilis were not informed or treated so researchers could observe the disease’s progression

informed consent

participants agree to take part in research after understanding the study, its risk, and their right to withdraw

confidentiality

protecting participants’ identities and personal information so they cannot be identified in research results

irb (institutional review board)

a committee that reviews research studies to ensure they follow ethical standards and protect participants

culture

the shared beliefs, ideals, artistic expression, and patterns of behavior that people learn through social interaction and use to make sense of everyday life

beliefs

ideas that members of a society accept as true

values

standards that a society views as important or desirable

norms

the visible and invisible rules of conduct through which societies are structured

symbols

anything that carries shared meaning among members of a society

patterns of behavior

practices of a group

group

people who share common experiences, identities, or activities and interact with one another, often developing shared expectations

subculture

a smaller cultural group within a large society that has distinctive values, norms, or behaviors while still being part of the dominant culture

dominant culture

the most widely shared values, beliefs, and behaviors that are considered normative or standard within a society

conterculture

a group whose values and norms differ from and challenge those of the dominant culture

nature

the biological approach to explaining behavior that focuses on traits and instincts people are born with n

nurture

the sociological approach to explaining behavior that focuses on social influences learned from the environment and from others

reflexes

automatic physical reactions that occur without conscious thought, such as pulling a hand away from something hot

instincts

inborn behaviors that supoprt survival and do not need to be learned, such as a baby crying for care

social norms

the visible and invisible rules of conduct through which societies are structured

socially constructed

created and maintained through people and society

sanctions

responses used to encourage conformity to social norms or to discourage

folkways

appropriate behavior in the day-to-day practices and expressions of a culture

mores

norms based on a group’s moral values about what is right and wrong

taboos

actions that are completely forbidden within a culture

language

a shared system of words and symbols used to communicate meaning

gestures

physical movements that communicate meaning without words

nonverbal communication

communication that occurs without spoken or written language