AP Psych - Unit 0

Biological/Medical Perspective

Focus: How the brain, nervous system, genetics, and hormones influence behavior and mental processes.

Buzzwords: brain chemistry, neurotransmitters, genetics, hormones, nervous system, evolutionary influences, brain structures (amygdala, hippocampus, frontal lobe).

Cognitive Perspective

Focus: How people think, perceive, remember, solve problems, and process information.

Buzzwords: memory, perception, schemas, problem-solving, thinking patterns, decision-making, information processing, mental representations.

Behavioral Perspective

Focus: How observable behaviors are learned and reinforced through interaction with the environment.

Buzzwords: conditioning, reinforcement, punishment, stimulus–response, learning, observable behavior, habits, environment.

Socio-Cultural Perspective

Focus: How behavior and thinking vary across situations, cultures, and social influences.

Buzzwords: culture, norms, ethnicity, gender, social influence, family, peers, traditions, society, collectivism vs. individualism.

Evolutionary Perspective

Focus: How natural selection and adaptation influence behavior and mental processes.

Buzzwords: survival, reproduction, adaptation, natural selection, fitness, mating strategies, inherited traits, evolutionary advantage.

Humanistic Perspective

Focus: Human potential, self-actualization, personal growth, and free will.

Buzzwords: self-actualization, free will, personal growth, potential, self-concept, unconditional positive regard, Maslow’s hierarchy of needs, self-esteem.

Psychodynamic Perspective

Focus: How unconscious drives, childhood experiences, and inner conflicts shape behavior.

Buzzwords: unconscious, repression, childhood, conflicts, dreams, id–ego–superego, defense mechanisms, psychosexual stages.

Confirmation Bias

Gather evidence supporting a conclusion while ignoring or not seeking evidence that refutes it.

Hindsight Bias

Believing that we know something only after the event occurs, “I knew it all along.”

Overconfidence

Believing that we know more than we do.

Theory

Related hypotheses supported by evidence and may predict many other associated phenomena.

Participant

A person who takes part in a research study.

Hypothesis

A predicted outcome that one can test.

Falsifiable Hypothesis

A hypothesis that can be proven incorrect by an experiment.

Operational Definitions

A description of the variable that enables replication. It usually explains how one measures it. Measurement explanation is needed if it is the DV or variables in a correlational study

Replication

Repeating an experiment. Is often used to gain more confidence in the initial results.

Case Study

Studying one or a few people in great depth.

Pros: Dig deep, describe rare phenomena, and provides areas for further explanation.

Cons: Time-consuming, subjects may not be representative, and cannot prove causality.

Naturalistic Observation

Watch and record everyday behavior in natural settings.

Pros: Reduces Hawthorne Effect, Real behavior, and Describes behavior.

Cons: Does not explain, No control, and Cannot prove causality.

Hawthorne Effect

Individuals might behave differently if they know they are part of a research study.

Survey

A study in which researchers select a group of participants from a population and data about or opinions from those participants are collected, measured.

Pros: Studies many variables, Can be done quickly and involve a large group of people.

Cons: It is hard to obtain a representative sample of a population- it needs random sampling, Cannot prove causality.

Population Sample

The total number of individuals in a given area.

A subset of a population that the researcher selects to make inferences about a population.

Random Sample

Every person in a population has the same probability of being selected, which reduces bias and helps make the sample representative of the population.

Social Desirability Bias

The tendency to give answers based on what is socially acceptable or the perceived desires of the researcher.

Self-Report Bias

A methodological problem occurs when researchers ask people to describe their thoughts, feelings, or behaviors instead of measuring them directly.

Peer Review

The process of submitting academic work to other professionals in the field for critique and evaluation before being published in journals.

Correlation

A relationship between variables or how well they can predict one another. Does not necessarily mean causation.

Directionality Problem

When two variables are related but, it is not known which is the cause and which is the effect.

Third Variable Problem

A hidden variable that may be causing the other two.

Correlation Coefficient

A numerical representation of a connection between two variables.

Scatterplot

A graphical representation of a correlation.

Positive Correlation

Both variables rise and fall together.

Negative Correlation

The variables are inversely related. As one rises, the other falls.

Independent Variable (IV)

A variable that a researcher manipulates or controls to determine its effect.

Dependent Variable (DV)

The outcome of the IV. Measurable.

Extraneous Variables

Variables that are not the IV or DV but may affect the outcome, but are unknown.

Confounding Variables

An extraneous variable that causes systematic variation which makes it difficult to separate from the IV.

Placebo

A harmless substance or treatment that has no active therapeutic effect provided to a control group.

Placebo Effect

A response to a treatment based on the recipient’s expectations. It can confound an experiment.

Single Blind Procedure

Participants are unaware of the experimental conditions.

Double Blind Procedure

Neither the researchers and the participants do not know who received the treatment.

Random Assignment

Participants are placed in groups randomly. Each person has an equal chance of being in any group. Decreases the likelihood of confounding variables.

Experimental Group

Receives the treatment.

Control Group

Does not receive the treatment or gets a placebo.

Quantitative Research

Using numerical measurement.

Likert Scales

An attitude measurement with positive and negative evaluations. (ex. Strongly Disagree, Disagree, Neutral, Agree, Strongly Agree)

Qualitative Research

Using descriptive data without numbers.

Structured Interviews

Questions, wording, and order are predetermined and kept consistent for each participant.

American Psychological Association (APA)

Sets the guidelines for ethical research.

Informed Consent

Prior approval to participate. Often requires the signature of the participants.

Informed Assent

Prior approval to participate by someone who is not able to give legal consent (under 18 years old).

Debriefing

To explain the true purpose of a study after completion.

Instructional Review Board (IRB)

Must give prior approval to the researchers. They consider: No undue harm (Psychological, emotional, physical, economic, social, etc.), confidentiality - participants remain anonymous with no identifying information, cost-benefit analysis, deception is allowed.