Lifestyle AP Psych

alzheimers disease

a progressive neurodegenerative disease characterized by cortical atrophy, neuronal death, synapse loss, and accumulation of amyloid plaques and neurofibrillary tangles causing dementia and significant decline of functioning

dementia

a generalized, pervasive deterioration of memory and at least one other cognitive function, such as language and an executive function, due to a variety of causes

attachment

the emotional bond between a human infant or a young nonhuman animal and its parent figure or caregiver; developed as a step in establishing a feeling of security and demonstrated by calmness while in parent/caregiver's presence

bonding

the process in which attachments or other close relationships are formed between individuals, especially between mother and infant

imprinting

a simple yet profound and highly effective learning process during a critical period in the life of some animals

authoritarian parents

ones that stress obedience, deemphasize collaboration and dialogue, and employ strong forms of punishment

authoritative parents

ones that encourage a child's autonomy yet still places certain limitations on behavior

permissive parents

ones that are accepting and affirmative, making few demands, and avoid exercising control

rejecting-neglecting parents

ones that fail to monitor or limit behavior and are more attentive to their needs than those of the child

autism spectrum disorder (ASD)

and one of a group of disorders with an onset typically occurring during the preschool years and characterized by varying but often marked and persistent deficits in social communication and social interaction, including difficulties with social-emotional reciprocity, nonverbal communication behaviors, and social relationships, along with restrictive patterns of interests, behaviors, and-or activities

babinski reflex

the reflex occuring in a healthy infant in which the big toe extends upward and the other toes fan out when the sole of the foot is gently stimulated

moro reflex

a reflex in which a newborn infant, when startled, throws out the arms, extends the fingers, and often quickly brings the arms back together as if clutching or embracing

palmar reflex

an involuntary grasping by an individual of anything that touches the palm, typical of infants

tonic neck reflex

an involuntary, primitive reflex in which when the infant turns the head to one side, the arm on that side extends and the opposite arm flexes, creating a "fencing" or "bow and arrow" posture; helps with facilitating hand-eye coordination and prepares infant for crawling and walking by coordinating arm and leg movements

rooting reflex

an automatic, unlearned response of a newborn to a gentle stimulus (the touch of a finger) applied to the corner of the mouth or to the cheek, in which the infant turns their head and makes sucking motions

cephalocaudal trend

a pattern of growth that occurs from head to toe, describing how a child's body changes proportionally as they grow from infancy to adulthood

proximodistal trend

a pattern of growth that occurs from the center of the body outward

cohort effect

any outcome associated with being a member of a group whose members all undergo similar experiences

concrete thinking

thinking focused on immediate experiences and specific objects and events, characteristic of many young children

abstract thinking

thinking characterized by the use of general ideas or concepts

conservation

of liquid volume, mass, area, number; the awareness that physical quantities do not change in amount when they are altered in appearance, such as when water is poured from a wide short beaker into a tall, thin one

critical period

an early stage in life when an organism is especially open to specific learning, emotional, or socializing experiences that occur as part of normal development and will not recur at a later stage

sensitive period

a stage in development when an organism can most rapidly acquire a particular skill or characteristic; lack of appropriate growth-dependent experiences here does not permanently and irreversably affect development as it would during a critical period, but rather makes the acquisition process outside the period more difficult

dizygotic twins

also known as fraternal twins; of the same or different sex; have developed from two seperate ova fertilized by two seperate sperm; approximately half as genetically similar to one another as monozygotic twins

monozygotic twins

also known as identical twins; always the same sex; have developed from a single fertilized ovum that splits in the early stages of mitosis to produce two individuals who carry the same complement of genes; share identical DNA

down syndrome

a chromosomal disorder disorder characterized by an extra full or partial copy of chromosome 21 and associated with physical and intellectual disabilities, developmental delays, and characteristic physical features

egocentrism

the tendency to emphasize one's own needs, concerns, and outcomes rather than those of others

Animism

the belief that natural phenomena or inanimate objects are alive or possess lifelike characteristics, such as intentions, desires, and feelings

emerging adulthood

a developmental stage that is neither adolescence nor young adulthood but is theoretically and empirically distinct from them both, spanning the late teens through the 20s, with a focus on ages 18-25; distinguished by relative independence from social roles and from normative expectations

Fetal alcohol syndrome

a group of adverse fetal and health effects associates with heavy maternal alcohol use during pregnancy; characterized by low birth weight and growth deficits, craniofacial anomalies, neurobehavioral problems, and cognitive disabilities

gestation

the development of the embryo and fetus in the uterus until birth (the overall duration of pregnancy)

prenatal development

the process of a baby's growth and development in the mother's womb, from conception to birth (the developmental processes that occur within the timeframe of gestation)

habituation

the gradual decrease in a child's response to a repeated stimulus, meaning they become less attentive or reactive to something they have seen or heard multiple times, allowing them to tune out irrelevant stimuli and focus on new or important information in their environment

identity achievement

in adolescent development, the status characterized by evidence of both identity exploration and commitment

identity foreclosure

the status characterized by commitment to an identity that adults have set forth for an individual but by failure to explore different options before that commitment is made

identity moratorium

the status characterized by evidence of identity exploration but a lack of commitment

identity diffusion

the status characterized by the lack of both identity exploration and commitment

longitudinal study

a research method that involves repeatedly observing the same variables over a long period of time

cross sectional study

a research method that involves observing a population at a specific point in time

cohort-sequential study

a research method that combines cross-sectional and longitudinal methods; different cohorts are studied at different times where new cohorts of younger groups are added in successive data collections to replace those who have grown older

maturation

the biological processes involved in an organism's becoming functional or fully developed

learning

the acquisition of skills and knowledge through experience, study, or being taught

menarche

the first instance of menstration in a female, marking the onset of puberty

spermarche

a male's first ejaculation of semen

menopause

a period in women in which reproductive capacity declines and finally ceases resulting from changes in the levels of estrogen and progesterone

moral reasoning

the cognitive and emotional process of using logic and moral theories to determine if an action is right or wrong

moral behavior

the act of behaving in accordance with one's moral values and standards

neonate

a newborn human or nonhuman animal; human infants born after the normal gestational period of 36 weeks are known as full-term neonates; infants born before the end of this period are called preterm neonates

infant

a young child, typically between birth and 12 months of age

object permanence

knowledge of the continued existence of objects even when they are not directly perceived

oral

Freud's first stage of psychosexual development, occupying the first year of life, in which the libido is concentrated on the mouth as the principal erotic zone

anal

the second stage typically occurring during the second year of life, in which the child's interest and sexual pleasure are focused on the expulsion and retention of feces

phallic

the third stage beginning around age 3, when the libido is focused on the genital area and the discovery and manipulation of the body becomes a major source of pleasure

latency

the fourth stage where overt sexual interest is sublimated and the child's attention is focused on skills and peer activities with members of their own sex

genital

final stage, ideally reached in puberty when the oedipus and electra complexes have been fully resolved and erotic interest and activity are focused on intercourse with a sexual partner

placenta

the specialized organ produced by the mammalian embryo that attaches to the wall of the uterus to permit removal of waste products and to provide nutrients, energy and gas exchange for the fetus via the maternal circulation

amniotic sac

the fluid-filled membrane that encases and protects the embryo of a bird, reptile, or mammal

preconventional morality

Kohlberg's first level of moral reasoning, characterized by the child's evaluation of actions in terms of material consequences (stage 1-punishment and obedience orientation; stage 2- instrumental relativism)

conventional morality

intermediate level of moral reasoning, characterized by an individual's identification with and conformity to the expectations and rules of family and society (stage 3- good boy-nice girl orientation; stage 4- law-and-order)

postconventional morality

third and highest level of moral reasoning, characterized by an individual's commitment to moral principles sustained independently of any identification with family, group, or country (stage 5- social contract orientation; stage 6- ethical principle orientation)

primary sex characteristic

trait associated with sex identity directly involved in reproduction of the species (testes in males, ovaries in females

secondary sex characteristic

trait not directly concerned with reproduction (voice quality, facial hair, breast size)

reminiscence bump

an increased proportion of autobiographical memories from youth and early adulthood observed in adults over 40

retrospective study

a type of research that analyses data from the past to investigate a hypothesis or compare groups

scaffolding

in education, a teaching style that supports and facilitates the student as they learn a new skill of concept, with the ultimate goal of the student becoming self-reliant; teaching material just beyond the level at which the student could learn alone

zone of proximal development

the difference between a child's actual level of ability and the level of ability that they can achieve when assisted by, or working in cooperation with, older of more experienced partners

schema

a collection of basic knowledge about a concept or entity that serves as a guide to perception, interpretation, imagination, or problem-solving

accommodation

process in which already existing structures are changed to accommodate new information

secure attachment style

the positive parent-child relationship, in which the child displays confidence when the parent is present, shows mild distress when the parents leaves, and quickly reestablishes contact when the parent returns

insecure attachment style

one of several patterns of a generally negative parent-child relationship in which the child fails to display confidence when the parent is present, sometimes shows distress when the parent leaves, and reacts to the parent by avoidance or with ambivalence

self-concept

one's description and and evaluation of oneself, including psychological and physical characteristics, qualities, skills, roles, and so forth; contributes to individual's sense of identity over time

self-esteem

the degree to which the qualities and characteristics contained in one's self-concept are perceived to be positive

identity

an individual's sense of self defined by (a) a set of physical, psychological, and interpersonal characteristics that is not wholly shared with any other person and (b) a range of affiliations (ethnicity) and social roles; the sense that one is the same person today that one was yesterday or last year

sensorimotor stage

for piaget, the first motor stage of cognitive development, extending from birth through 2 years of age; characterized by the development of sensory and motor processes and by the infant's first knowledge of the world acquired by interacting with the environment

preoperational stage

the second stage of cognitive development occurring between ages 2 and 7; child becomes able to record experience in a symbolic fashion and to represent an object, event, or feeling in speech, movement, drawing, etc

concrete operational stage

the third stage of cognitive development occurring between 7-12 years of age; children can decenter their perception, are less egocentric, and can think logically about physical objects and about specific situations involving those objects

formal operational stage

the fourth and final stage of cognitive development, beginning around age 12; complex intellectual functions such as abstract thinking, logical processes, conceptualization, and judgment develop

social clock

in a given culture, the set of norms governing the ages at which particular life events-such as beginning school, leaving home, getting married, having children, and retiring-are expected to occur

social referencing

evaluating one's own modes of thinking, expression, or behavior by comparing them with those of other people so as to understand how to react in a particular situation and to adapt one's actions and reactions in ways that are perceived to be appropriate

stranger anxiety

the distress and apprehension experienced by young children when they are around individuals who are unfamiliar to them

separation anxiety

the normal apprehension experienced by a young child when away (of facing the prospect of being away) from the person to whom they are attached (particularly parents)

temperament

the basic foundation of personality, usually assumed to be biologically determined and present in early life, including such characteristics as energy level, emotional responsiveness, demeanor, mood, response tempo, behavioral inhibition, and willingness to explore

teratogen

an agent that induces developmental abnormalities in a fetus

theory of mind

the understanding that others have intentions, desires, beliefs, perceptions, and emotions different from one's own and that such intentions, desires, and so forth affect people's actions and behaviors

trust

the first of erikson's eight tasks of psychosocial development, between birth and 18 months of age; the infant either comes to view other people and themself as trustworthy or comes to develop a fundamental distrust of their environment

autonomy

the second task, between 18 months and 3 years of age; children acquire a degree of self-reliance and self-confidence if allowed to develop at their own pace but may begin to doubt their ability to control themselves and their world if parents are overcritical, overprotective, or inconsistent

initiative

the third task, from 3-6; in planning, launching, and initiating fantasy, play, and other activity, the child learns to believe in their ability to successfully pursue goals, yet if they often fail or are criticized, they may develop instead a feeling of self-doubt and guilt

industry

the fourth task, from 6-11; the child learns to be productive and to accept evaluation of their efforts or becomes discouraged and feels inferior or incompetent

identity

the fifth task, marked by an identity crisis that occurs during adolescence; the individual may experience a period that permits experimentation with social roles, or may identify or remain confused about their sense of identity

intimacy

the sixth task, extending from adolescence to early middle age; the individual must learn to share and care without losing themselves; if they fail, they will feel alone and isolated

generativity

the seventh task; old age; individual reflects on the life they have lived and may either develop a sense of satisfaction in having led a good life and the ability to approach death with equanimity or despair, a feeling of bitterness about opportunities missed and time wasted, and a dread of approaching death

zygote

a fertilized egg, or ovum, with a diploid set of chromosomes, half contributed by the mother and the father

embryo

an animal in the stages of development between cleavage of the fertilized egg and birth or hatching; in human prenatal development, comprises the products of conception during the first 8 weeks of pregnancy

fetus

an animal embryo in the later stages of development; in humans the fetal period is from the end of the 8th week after fertilization until birth