Chapter 13 - Problem solving & creativity

Problem Solving

An effort to overcome obstacles obstructing the path to a solution. Process of finding solutions to problems encountered in life.

• Mental representation: form a representation of the current state to understand the problem and its constraints

• Memory retrieval: defines whether we have a problem or not; knowledge of similar problems

• Heuristics and algorithms

• Barriers

Problem-solving in the brain

• Prefrontal cortex in frontal lobe

• Intuitive vs. intentional thinking to solve problems

• Brain may rely on past experiences to problem-solve (can limit discovery of new solutions)

• Can require a lot of mental energy (release of adrenaline, flight, flight, or freeze mode)

Problem-solving Cycle (definition)

mental process of navigating challenges that involves identifying the problem, devising a strategy, and implementing a solution

Characterized by two polar states:

• Initial state: the situation at the outset in which to problem is not yet solved

• Goal state: condition under which the problem has been solved

Obstacle: factors that prevent us from solving our problem

• When we attempt to overcome obstacles, we engage in the problem-solving cycle

The problem-solving cycle (6 steps)

1. Identify and define the problem

2. Formulate a strategy

3. Gather and organize information

4. Implement the solution

5. Monitor progress

6. Evaluate the results

Identify and define the problem (step 1) - problem solving cycle

recognize that a problem exists and clearly define the problem

• outlining the problem’s boundaries, goals, and constraints

Formulate a strategy (step 2) - problem solving cycle

using different cognitive strategies to address the problem

• Algorithms (step-by-step procedures)

• Heuristics

• Breaking problem into smaller parts

Gather and organize information (step 3) - problem solving cycle

collect and analyze all relevant resources needed to implement the strategy

• collect data, facts, and knowledge related to the problem

• consider time, effort, and resources required for solving the problem

Implement the solution (step 4) - problem solving cycle

put the chosen strategy into action

Monitor progress (step 5) - problem solving cycle

check the implementation of chosen solution and make adjustments as needed

Evaluate the results (step 6) - problem solving cycle

assess effectiveness of chosen solution

• return to earlier step if needed

• identify areas for improvement in future problem-solving efforts

Types of problems

categorized according to whether they have clear paths to a solution of not

• Well-structured problems

• Ill-structured problems

Well-structured problems

have clear paths to solutions

• Transformation problems: problems that require a series of moves to reach a final goal state

• Problem space: all possible actions that can be applied to solving a problem, within the constraints that apply to the solution of the problem

• Track cognitive changes: give insight into how we solve, plan, search, and select a move

• How we use heuristics and search strategies

• Hobbits and orcs move problem

Well-Structured Problem-Solving Strategies

• Heuristics: narrows your search through the problem space and still leads you to the problem’s solution

• Errors with heuristics: Inadvertently moving backwards, Making illegal moves, Not realizing the nature of the next legal move

• Algorithms: step-by-step procedures that guarantee a solution when followed precisely

  •Involves a defined set of rules and instructions

  •Accuracy over speed (more time-consuming)

  •Guaranteed solution

  •Ex. Following a recipe exactly as indicated

Ill-structured problems

no clear statement of how the goal should be characterized or what operations might serve to reach that goal

• Productive thinking: insights that go beyond the bounds of existing associations

• To solve ill-structured problems, you must break away from existing associations and see the problem in an entirely new light

• Justification skills: problems can be represented in different ways and often have alternative solutions

• Insight

• may need to solve the problem in a novel way

Types of problem-solving heuristic

• Working backwards

• Guess and check

• Means-end analysis

Working backwards (type of problem-solving heuristic)

starting with the final goal and working backwards to the beginning

• example: losing an item and retracing your steps

Guess and check (type of problem-solving heuristic)

making a guess and checking if it’s correct, and adjusting the guess as needed

• example: moving a ring over to the third column but then realizing it dosen’t work, so you reserve the step and try a different option

Means-End Analysis (type of problem-solving heuristic)

Comparing current situation to the desired outcome and taking steps to reduce the difference, in no particular order.

• example: You need to get to work on time.

  Difference between where I am and where I need to be? Distance. What changes distance? My car. My car needs gas. Must leave early to get gas before work…

Isomorphic Problems

Problems that have the same structure or underlying pattern, but the details are different

•Ex. Hobbits and orcs vs. Tower of Hanoi

•Ex. The example from a textbook vs. a problem on an exam

• How problems are presented does matter (Kotovsky et al., 1985)

• Present participants with isomorphic variations of Tower of Hanoi

•Some forms of the problem took up to 16 times as long to solve

•Major determinant was how the problem was presented

• Different problems can put different demands on our working memory

Insight

a distinctive and sometimes seemingly sudden understanding of a problem or strategy that aids in solving the problem

• Feels sudden but often the result of prior thought and hard work

• Involves identifying and combining old and new information to gain a novel view of the problem

• Sleep is shown to increase the likelihood of producing insight

• Right anterior superior-temporal gyrus shows activity when experiencing insight

• Before insights become conscious, activity in the right hemisphere can be observed

Mental Entrenchment

• Mental set: cognitive bias where we approach problems with a specific framework or strategy based on past experiences

• Fixate on a strategy that normally works well in solving many problems, but does not work well in solving that specific problem

• Functional fixedness: specific fixation on a particular use of an object

• Inability to realize that an object could have multiple uses and functions

Transfer

carryover knowledge, skills, and strategies from one problem situation to another

Positive transfer

when the solution of an earlier problem makes it easier to solve a new problem

Negative transfer

when solving an earlier problem makes it harder to solve a later one

How can we avoid negative transfer?

Incubation: putting the problem aside for a while without consciously thinking about it

• Problem is still being processed subconsciously

• Involves taking a break from the stages of problem solving

• Beneficial when we have time to solve a problem

• Help relieve mental fixation and foster the problem-solving process

• Creative breakthroughs

Mind-Body Connection

• Embodied cognition: theory that the mind influences the body, and the body influences the mind

• Feedback from our bodies can influence our thought processes

• Participants perform physical movements while completing the Two String problem (Thomas & Lleras, 2009)

• Results: After 16 minutes, 85% of the swing group participants had solved the problem, whereas only 62% of the stretch group participants found a solution

• Not consciously aware of the connection between physical exercises and insight, but the physical movements had an impact on their problem solving

Experts vs. Novices

Automaticity can hinder problem solving for experts by making them less flexible to problems that appear structurally different from the norm

Creativity

Process of using attention, memory, and problem-solving to produce something that is both original and worthwhile

• Study as a cognitive process and how it relates to problem solving and insight

• End result can take many forms

•Scientific theory

•Dance sequence

•Story

Characteristics Among Creative Individuals - Patterns of Behavior

Show creative productivity: build on and diverge from what they know to create and innovate approaches and products.

Have creative lifestyles: characterized by flexibility, nonstereotyped behavior, and nonconforming attitudes.

Expertise and commitment to creative endeavor: dedicated and motivated to become an expert.

Characteristics Among Creative Individuals - Personality Characteristics

Flexible beliefs and broadly accepting attitudes towards other cultures, races, religions.

More likely to be dominant and hostile than less creative individuals.

Self-confident & self-accepting.

Impulsive, ambitious, and driven.

Intrinsically motivated (extrinsic motivation hinders creativity).

Open to new experiences.