Chapter 1 Introduction to The Science of Psychology

Flashcards covering the fundamentals of introductory psychology, the scientific method, variable types, research design, and psychological perspectives and specializations.

Psychology

The scientific study of people’s behavior and mental processes.

Behavior

External, observable actions.

Mental processes

Internal thoughts and feelings.

Science

The pursuit and application of knowledge and understanding of the natural and social world using a systematic methodology based on evidence.

Psychology (Field Classification)

Psychology is a social science, which means it involves the study of people.

Theory

A general explanation of an aspect of behavior and/or mental process.

Hypothesis ($H1$)

A specific educated guess based on a general theory that will be tested.

The Scientific Method (Step 1)

Develop a Question: Consider observations, experiences, past ideas, and choose a theory on which to base research.

The Scientific Method (Step 2)

State a Hypothesis: Develop a specific educated guess based on the general theory.

The Scientific Method (Step 3)

Design Study and Collect Data: Pick a research method to measure thoughts, feelings, or actions ($data$).

The Scientific Method (Step 4)

Analyze the Data: Use statistics to understand the data and draw conclusions about whether they support the hypothesis and theory.

The Scientific Method (Step 5)

Share the Findings: Write up research, submit it to a professional journal for peer review, and publish if approved.

Operational definition

Specification of how a variable is to be manipulated or measured.

Population

All members of an identified group.

Sample

A subset of a population that is chosen to participate in a research study.

Random sampling

Choosing members such that they have an equal chance of being chosen to ensure the sample represents the population.

Experimental research

Involves manipulating variables to see if they affect behavior (thoughts, feelings, actions).

Independent variable ($IV$)

The thing that is manipulated by the researcher; every $IV$ has at least two levels called conditions or treatment groups.

Dependent variable ($DV$)

The thing that is measured by the researcher, representing the outcome or result of the $IV$.

Experimental group

Any group of people that receives a treatment.

Control group

The group that does not receive a treatment (or receives a treatment representing normal conditions) used for comparison.

Random assignment

Putting people in experimental or control groups in a way that ensures everyone has an equal chance of ending up in any group to keep characteristics similar on average.

Descriptive research

Involves measuring naturally occurring behavior without manipulating variables; includes naturalistic observation, case studies, and surveys.

Correlational study

Research where the researcher analyzes the statistical relationships between variables without manipulation.

Positive correlation

Occurs when as one variable ($X$) increases in value, the other variable ($Y$) also increases.

Negative correlation

Occurs when as one variable ($X$) increases in value, the other variable ($Y$) decreases.

Correlation coefficient ($r$)

A statistical value that indicates the direction and strength of a relationship; a value close to $0$ is weak, while a value close to $-1.00$ or $+1.00$ is strong.

Third-variable problem

When another variable causes both $X$ and $Y$, illustrating why correlation does not necessarily mean causation.

Psychoanalytic Perspective

An approach associated with Sigmund Freud focusing on content in the unconscious mind.

Behavioral Perspective

An approach associated with John Watson, B.F. Skinner, and Ivan Pavlov focusing on environmental factors affecting learning and observable actions.

Cognitive Perspective

An approach focusing on mental processes such as thinking, decision-making, and memory.

Humanistic Perspective

An approach associated with Abraham Maslow and Carl Rogers focusing on feelings and needs for growth and reaching full potential.

Biological Perspective

An approach focusing on the brain, bodily chemicals (neurotransmitters and hormones), and genes.

Sociocultural Perspective

An approach focusing on social relationships, especially during childhood, and culture.

Neuroscience (Neuropsychology)

Specialization in biological processes, especially the brain, bodily chemicals, and genetics.

Sensation/perception

Specialization in the processes of vision, hearing, taste, touch, and smell.

Cognition

Specialization in mental processes including consciousness, memory, language, intelligence, problem-solving, and decision-making.

Learning (Specialization)

Specialization focused on changes in behavior due to experience.

Motivation (Specialization)

Specialization focused on why people do what they do.

Development (Specialization)

Specialization focused on growth and change throughout the lifespan.

Personality (Specialization)

Specialization focused on the description and identification of stable characteristics to predict behavior.

Social (Specialization)

Specialization focused on how people interact with each other.

Clinical Psychology

Diagnosis and treatment of severe psychological disorders causing major dysfunction; requires a Doctoral degree ($Ph.D.$).

Counseling Psychology

Diagnosis and treatment of less severe mental and behavioral problems causing minor dysfunction; requires a Masters degree ($M.S.$).

Psychiatrist

A medical doctor ($M.D.$) who treats severe behavioral problems primarily with medication.