Forensic Anthropology Exam 1

Medical examiners

Legal responsibility to certify the deaths of people who die when not under the care of their physicians

Licensed physicians who have specialized in forensic work (went to medical school)

Pathologists

Medical doctors who perform autopsies to help determine the cause and manner of death

Work under the medical examiners but sometimes work with coroners

Perform autopsies to determine cause of death in order determine the manner of death

Coroners

Legal responsibility to certify the deaths of people who die when not under the care of their physicians

Elected officials who may or may not have medical training/licenses

Forensic odontologists

Fill in teeth gaps to identify victim

Application of dental science to the identification of unknown human remains and bite marks, using both physical and biological dental evidence

Forensic entomologists

Specialize in insects to finalize time of death

Forensic anthropologists

Deal with the bones, look at the biological profile or trauma of victim, also assist with time of death

Will wait to be asked to work and then give their report and findings to the pathologist

What was one of the earliest descriptions of murder?

the death of Caesar, described as having 23 cuts to the body and one fatal wound to the chest

When does forensic pathology become a true medical speciality?

1959

Where did coroners originate?

The English coroner system is in place by 1194

"keepers of the crown" or "crowners"

Initially no medical training

Traveled around from court to court, determining cause of death

When did medical examiners get introduced to the US?

In 1877 in Massachusetts

they develop the medial examiner system where the coroner MUST have medical training

Historical development of forensic pathology

Growth of coroner/ME system in the US

1) the medical examiners (21 states and DC),

2) mixture of both medical examiner and coroners (18 states),

3) only coroners (11 states)

4 circumstances ME's look at:

1) Violent death

2) Suspicious deaths

3) Sudden/unexpected death

4) Death with no physician present

What do medical examiner's determine?

1) Manner of death

2) Cause of death

3) Identity

4) Time of death

Cause of death

The disease or injury responsible for the lethal sequence of events

Anatomical or psychological reason for death

Manner of death

What kind of death - homicide, suicide, accident, or undetermined

How the cause of death arose - natural vs. non-natural death

Natural deaths

caused exclusively by disease/condition

"due solely or nearly totally to disease and/or the aging process"

Heart disease, SIDS, chronic alcohol abuse, etc.

Non-natural deaths

sub-classified as accident, homicide, suicide, or undetermined

Accident

little or no evidence that the injury or poisoning occurred with intent to harm or cause death, in essence the fatal outcome was unintentional

Accidental overdose, falls, motor vehicle, etc.

Homicide

occurs when death results form a volitional act committed by another person to cause fear, harm, or death

Homicide is different than murder

Murder is the unlawful taking of a human life by another, especially with premeditated malice

All murders are homicides but not all homicides are murders

Suicide

results form an injury or poisoning as a result of an intentional, self-inflicted act committed to do self-harm or cause death of one's self

Drug overdose, gunshot, hanging, etc.

Undetermined

used when the information pointing to one manner of death is nor more compelling than another competing manner of death

Usually a interim classification that indicates a level of uncertainty about the circumstances surrounding death

This classification is usually changed once the results of the autopsy are received

Otherwise known as "Pending investigation"

Forensic science

application of science to matters of criminal or civil law

"Any science, used for purposes of the law, is a forensic science"

Forensic science goals

Identify evidence

Link suspect, victim, and crime scene

Physical evidence

ranges from microscopic items to large items like vehicles an can include fingerprints, hair, fibers, blood, body fluids, drugs, paint, glass, botanicals, soil, firearms, bullets, tool markings, shoeprints, etc.

Evidence Admissibility

The amount of evidence that makes it into trial is only a portion of the total evidence

- Evidence left at crime scene

- Evidence collected by investigators

- Evidence that can be tested and produces results

- Evidence allowed into court according to rules of evidence

Frye v. the United States (1923)

Is the scientific theory generally accepted in the scientific community?

Is the scientific method used generally accepted in the scientific community?

Has the technique been applied correctly?

Known as "general acceptance standard"

♣ Does not offer any guidance on reliability

♣ The evidence is presented at trial and jury decides if it can be used

Daubert v. Merrell Dow Pharmaceuticals (1993)

Has the scientific theory/technique been tested?

Has the scientific theory/technique been subjected to peer review and publication?

What are known or potential error rates of theory/technique when applied?

Do standards and controls exits and are they maintained?

- Are the machines or routines routinely maintained or checked?

Has the theory/technique been generally accepted in the relevant scientific community?

- Judge decides if evidence can be entered into trial - "the gatekeeper"

AAFS sections/specializations

Forensic anthropology

Analysis of skeletonized, burned, decomposed, or otherwise unidentified human remains via construction of the PROFILE

What are the objectives of a forensic anthropologist?

o Assist with recovery

o Generate biological profile

o Asses trauma

o Estimate time since death/post mortem interval (TSD/PMI)

o Establish positive identification

Forensic anthropology is a relatively ______ discipline

young

Webster and Parkman 1849

A man was murdered and another man was put on trial

They were two Harvard professors

One borrowed money from the other

Instead of paying him back, Webster kills him

Webster dismembered body and deposited parts in a Harvard privy, parts in his chemistry lab, burned the head in his furnace

They recovered the parts of the body, and could tell they were human, male, and an older adult

The recovered Parkman's dentures were found and matched to the original molds

First time skeletal evidence was used in US court of law

Formative Period (1800-1938)

Dwight, Dorsey, Hrdlicka

Thomas Dwight (1843-1911)

An anatomist at Harvard, before physical anthropology emerged as an organized discipline

The "father of American forensic anthropology"

Parkman Professor of anatomy at Harvard

Post-civil-war, he presented on the use of human skeleton in medicolegal investigations

He developed some of the first procedures to estimate age at death, sex, and living stature from skeletonized human remains

He wrote a "pamphlet" which sparked professional interest in this area of physical anthropology

George Dorsey (1868-1931)

First to receive a doctorate in anthropology from Harvard

Dorsey published on the medicolegal applications of knowledge of skeletal anatomy

Like Dwight, becomes a professor at Harvard

First to conduct research aimed at sex estimation

In 1897, he discovered that the humeral head was a better estimator than the femoral head

Presented these findings at an anatomy conference in 1899, and was roundly criticized and dismissed by his colleagues

Never again worked in physical anthropology, joined the Navy instead

Before he leaves, Dorsey testified in a high-profile murder case in Chicago

- A local sausage manufacturer was accused of murdering his wife and disposing of her remains in a sausage factory vat

Ales Hrdlcka (1869-1943)

Well known for his seminal role in the development of American physical anthropology

Collecting skeletal remains for the Smithsonian (10,000 + remains, some were taken legally, most were not - grave robberies)

He did studies in the areas of skeletal identification, ancestry, trauma, and photographic superimposition

Consolidation Period (1939-1971)

Krogman, Snow, Stewart, Trotter

Wilton Krogman (1903-1987)

Bursts into the scene with his 1939 publication for the FBI Bulletin detailing the use of skeletons in legal investigations

This period starts in 1939 because of this publication

Represents the first time a forensic anthropologist actually publishes on forensic anthropology

Charles E. Snow (1910-1967)

Professor of Anatomy and Physical Anthropology at the University of Kentucky

In time, CILHI expands to identification of servicemen from multiple war arenas, including Korea and Vietnam

First director of CILHI

One year after Snow assumes leadership, Mildred Trotter joins him at CILHI

T. Dale Stewart (1901-1997)

As Hrdlicka's Smithsonian heir, Stewart continued to conduct investigations for the FBI and other law enforcement official

He was interested in everything

Joins in 1953 in a mirror identification laboratory in Japan to deal with Korean war dead

- Success rate 375 out of 450 identified

Realizes prime research potential, and gets permission from military to examine skeletal age markers in the young male war dead

In 1957, along with Thomas McKern, Stewart publishes the results of this research in their seminal

Published numerous books and articles concerning forensic work

Mildred Trotter (1899-1991)

Professor of Anatomy at Washington University

Trotter took over Snow's position at CILHI in 1948

Developed techniques for determining stature for the lengths of long bones of killed WWII servicemen and records of their heights

She begins research on to refining our height estimations

Modern Period (1972-Present)

American Academy of Forensic Sciences, Physical Anthropology section, American Board of Forensic Anthropology

What was founded for the first time in 1972?

Begins when the Physical Anthropology Section of the American Academy of Forensic Sciences meets for the first time in 1972

Anthropologists Kerley and Snow are the founding organizers

What was founded 5 years after the American Academy of Forensic Sciences?

the American Board of Forensic Anthropology was created with the purpose of ensuring competence of forensic anthropologist

Now the fastest growing section, and publishes more than any other

Not a lot of people who are board certified

FORDISC 3.0

computer program that serves as a discriminant function analysis program to help assess demography and ancestry via hundreds of known exemplars

Information from skeletal remains

Is it even bone?

Are the remains human?

Are they single or multiple remains?

When did death occur?

What was the age of the decedent? (1)

What was the sex of the decedent? (2)

What was the ancestry of the decedent? (3)

What was the stature of the decedent? (4)

Are there anomalies or pathologies of the skeleton?

What was the cause of death (i.e. asphyxia due to strangulation)?

What was the manner of death (natural, accident, suicide, homicide, unknown)?

What are some materials that can mimic bone?

Like burned asbestos, melted insulation, tree roots, shell, cork, rocks, etc.

If you can not determine if the bone is human or real, what can you do?

If visual examination isn't enough, examine microscopically

Human osteons look differently than animals, except large dog cells

Is it easy to distinguish human bones from animal bones/fragments?

Unless you have an intimate knowledge of human skeleton, difficult to distinguish

Most people can identify human bones when the skeleton is more or less intact (especially the skull), but when elements are isolated or fragmentary, it becomes difficult

What limbs of tetrapods all have the same pattern of bones?

Ulna, humerus, radius, carpal - yet morphology differs

What are the major areas of distinction to determine bone species?

Size and morphology

Size

Immature skeletons exhibit epiphyses, which provide a valuable tool in the determination of human verses non-human

If you encounter a small long bone, that looks like a complete human bone but is small in size but it is with epiphyses, it is NOT human

Remember, human long bones are not complete (have the ends attached) until growth of the bone is complete

Size of the bone and areas of muscle attachment reflect muscle mass of the animal, this is most important for distinguishing adult long bones

Morphology

Humans are the only two legged animals

Consequently, the bones of the trunk (particularly the pelvis and scapula) exhibit a unique morphology

There are differences in epiphyseal formation and morphology of smaller bones

Cranium - the most frequently recovered skeletal element and fortunately the most distinct

Epiphyses

is the ability in young bones, to fuse still - it is still growing

Prehistoric (over ~500 years)

Bone patina (discoloration), distinctive tooth wear (worn down almost to nothing), distinctive bone condition, presence of beads, shell, or stone implements, and the overall "look" of the bones

Once prehistoric determination assessed (depending on state), the next step is to contact the state archaeologist

They insure the remains are returned to the appropriate lineal descendants for reburial (if they exist)

Historic (~100 to 500 years ago)

Typically disturb cemetery burials

Burials that have been in coffins present a very distinctive condition called "coffin-wear" which is typically a very flaky and reddish condition of the bone

The coffins are disturbed by ground water where they are raised and lowered consistently by the water

Artifacts with the bones may also serve as clues to a historic burial, especially coffin hardware, clothes, pocket watches, coins, etc.

Embalmed skin or hair can last for centuries

Modern 1972-Present

If remains are found to be of a modern (non-historic) nature, classified as forensically significant, and legal investigation proceeds

Who founded the American Academy of Forensic Sciences?

Anthropologists Ellis Kerley and Clyde snow. The Academy met for the first time in 1972

What was the purpose for the American Board of Forensic Anthropology?

To ensure competence in Forensic Anthropologists

Where do Forensic Anthropologists find work?

Academics, law enforcement, morgue settings, and military installations.

Is a suicide a crime scene?

No, it is not a crime to kill your self, it known simply as a death scene.

Context? When is a forensic anthropologist needed?

When human remains are discovered.

What are tetrapods?

4-legged life forms that originated ~400MYA.

Amphibians, reptiles, dinosaurs, birds and mammals. Snakes are descendants of tetrapods.

The limbs of these all have similar bone patters; humerus, ulna and radius, carpals, metacarpals and phalanges.

"All mammals have the same basic skeletal plan. Humans are just a variation on the theme." -Kathy Taylor. King County ME office.

History of Forensic Anthropology

Thomas Dwight earned the title of "Father of Forensic Anthropology in the United States." due to his essay The Identification of the Human Skeleton: A Medicolegal Study (1878).

From the 1940s to the early 1970s, attention from medicolegal and military agencies increased, with recognition of the utility of forensic anthropology in the identification of deceased service members from WWII and the Korean War.

What is Forensic Anthropology?

Forensic anthropology is considered to be an applied subfield of physical anthropology

and can be defined as the application of anthropological method and theory

to matters of legal concern, particularly those that relate to the recovery and analysis

of the skeleton. Forensic anthropologists also specialize in the search for and recovery of human remains, the analysis of skeletal trauma and other

alterations which may be relevant to the individual's cause and manner of death, and

the facilitation of personal identification through the recognition of traits and features

that may be associated with a particular individual.

What factors determine medicolegal significance of evidence?

• Is the material skeletal (bone or tooth) versus some other material?

• Is the skeletal material human versus non-human in origin?

• Is the human skeletal material contemporary (recent) versus non-contemporary (historic or prehistoric)?

Recognizing the medicolegal significance of questioned items or materials is an important first step in a forensic anthropological analysis. It is recommended that, where feasible, forensic anthropologists are involved early in the investigation so that these determinations can be made accurately and as early as possible.

Methods to differentiate Skeletal versus non-skeletal material --- Taphonomy

Taphonomy The "laws of burial," typically referring to the state of preservation and modification of remains (adj: taphonomic)

The most commonly encountered context in which skeletal material and other materials may be initially confused is in cases of burning, especially within structures (e.g., house fires), where fragments of burned bone may be intermixed with various other burned, melted, and fragmented materials such as building components, furniture, and appliances. Examples of this were frequently encountered in the analysis of materials recovered following the World Trade Center attack of September 11, 2001.

if a determination cannot be made based on a visual analysis, other methods typically include radiography, microscopy (including histological analysis), and elemental analysis.

Methods to differentiate Skeletal versus non-skeletal material------Radiographic Analysis

Radiographically, osseous and dental tissues are typically more radiopaque due to their mineral content, which may readily differentiate them from other commonly encountered non-mineralized materials. Internal structures such as trabeculae and tooth pulp chambers may also, be identifiable. Radiography is a technique that can be used to quickly and easily determine whether skeletal material is present among a collection of other debris such as leaves, sticks, and rocks.

Methods to differentiate Skeletal versus non-skeletal material--------Micro material

Microscopic or histological analysis may reveal microstructures indicative of osseous or dental tissue such as Haversian systems, trabecular bone, enamel prisms, or cement layers. Microscopically, bone also has a compact and sometimes grainy surface that is distinctive and unlike that of many other materials

Methods to differentiate Skeletal versus non-skeletal material--------Elemental analysis

Elemental analysis- The basis for this approach is that bones and teeth possess a specific elemental composition that includes both calcium and phosphorus. The technique can successfully identify skeletal material but involves the destruction of a small sample and considerable preparation.

Human versus non-human skeletal material

-20-30% of cases examined by forensic anthropologists are determined to be of non-human origin.

-differences in locomotion, growth and development, biomechanics, and diet, numerous differences exist between the skeletons of different animal species

-Assessment of human versus non-human can be undertaken at three fundamental levels: macroscopic, microscopic, and biochemical.

-Macroscopic methods involve visual or radiographic assessment of skeletal and dental morphology, with attention to the bone architecture (shape) but also with consideration of size as well as stage of growth and development (i.e., immature versus skeletally mature adult). A skilled human osteologist will usually have no problem in differentiating human from non-human remains when the bones are relatively complete, because the overall shapes of the bones and their features are rather distinct. Even for human osteologists not well-versed in non-human osteology, their intimate knowledge of human skeletal anatomy allows for clear recognition of when something is not human. The major differences between the human and non-human mammal vertebrate skeleton are related to differences in locomotion - humans are bipeds (walking on two legs) and most other land mammals are quadrupeds (walking on four legs). These differences in locomotion are reflected in almost every aspect of skeletal anatomy. Knowledge of the stages of bone and tooth development and epiphyseal union sequences gained through careful study of subadult skeletons is an important component of forensic anthropological training.

-Microscopy may be useful for comparing the microstructure of bones, although histological approaches should be employed with caution in the case of burned bone, since heat may alter some of the microscopic structures.

Contemporary versus non-contemporary human skeletal remains

Contemporary, in the medicolegal context, is typically defined as having died within the last 50 years or so. If the remains are not contemporary, then they likely fall outside of the purview of the medicolegal system, either because identification of the individual is not possible or necessary to establish, or because the individual has already been previously processed through the medicolegal system. Examples of non-medicolegally significant human remains include those from archaeological contexts, disturbed cemeteries, anatomical teaching specimens, and "trophy skulls". the determination of whether remains are contemporary can be accomplished simply by examining the amount of soft tissue present. One case has been described, however, in which the presence and quality of soft tissue suggested a recent death although the remains were actually historic in nature. THE CASE OF COLONEL WILLIAM SHY.

What are the primary indicators used to assess whether human remains are contemporary are taphonomic, contextual, or biocultural?

Taphonomic indicators are those that affect the appearance, quality, and preservation of the remains. In most instances, recent remains will be more well preserved than remains that are older, especially if they buried. If most of the soft tissue and viscera are still present, the remains are likely to be very recent, though intentional preservation practices should also be considered. Even when soft tissues have decomposed, well-preserved bone, such as bone that is still hydrated or greasy, is more likely to be recent than poorly preserved bone, such as bone that is highly weathered, dried, decalcified, or friable. Bone is naturally a white to yellowish color, but over time and in the absence of surrounding soft tissues, it will begin to take on the color of the soil or environment in which it is deposited. Further, the exposure to the environment and microorganisms in the surrounding soil will influence the degree of diagenesis of skeletal remains. Taphonomic indicators that suggest an extended burial period, such as soil color absorption and deterioration in bone quality, are likely indicators of a non-contemporary burial.

Contextual

Context refers to where something was found, where it was found in relation to other artifacts, when in time it was found, and when it was originally deposited. Understanding the context in which the remains were found is often the key to determining the medicolegal significance. For example, remains scattered in a remote wooded area are likely to be medicolegally significant, while those discovered in a known cemetery are likely to be non-significant. Artifacts associated with remains often provide contextual evidence of when the remains were deposited. Artifacts are of two basic types: personal effects, which are artifacts that belonged to the individual in life and are found with the decedent's remains, and grave goods, which are artifacts placed with a decedent's remains by other individuals. Personal effects typically include the individual's clothing, jewelry, wallet, and other belongings directly associated with their person. Grave goods are often items placed by friends and family. artifacts may include currency or other modern and directly dateable items that may provide clues to contemporaneity.

Biocultural

Biocultural factors may also assist in the determination of medicolegal significance. For example, diet and food preparation practices have changed dramatically in the last several hundred years, and as a result, non-contemporary individuals may exhibit dental or skeletal adaptations or modifications that are not typically seen in modern populations. Notably, prehistoric Native Americans can often be distinguished from contemporary Americans by the dramatic degree of occlusal attrition on their dentition which resulted from the introduction of grit into the diet from food grinding implements, as well as use of the dentition in the processing of hides and basketry. Certain cultural modifications such as cranial deformation and dental mutilation may also be clues to the cultural affiliation and contemporaneity of the remains. Certain cultural burial arrangements, such as flexed and semi-flexed positions, were used by some prehistoric societies, whereas modern day burials are most often in an extended position.

Radiocarbon dating

Radiocarbon dating techniques can provide valuable data and may become practical in the future of forensic death investigation. Radiocarbon dating is based on the principle that 14C (or carbon-14), an unstable radiometric isotope of 12C, is produced in the earth's upper atmosphere due to cosmic ray bombardment. The 14C is then distributed throughout the atmosphere as carbon dioxide (14CO2) and taken in by organisms. At death, organisms stop taking in carbon, and the 14C begins radioactive decay, via the half-life of 14C (5,730 years). Measuring the remaining 14C using an accelerator mass spectrometer allows calculation of the date at which the organism stopped taking in carbon

Summary

•The recognition of the medicolegal significance of material to a forensic anthropologist includes determining whether the material is skeletal versus some other material, whether skeletal material is human or non-human, and whether human

skeletal material is contemporary or non-contemporary.

•The determination of skeletal or non-skeletal origin is typically accomplished by gross visual examination, but when material is small and/or taphonomically compromised, this may be accomplished by using radiography, microscopy, or elemental analysis.

• A recently developed method of elemental analysis for determining skeletal or non-skeletal origin involves the use of X-ray fluorescence spectrometry (XRF) to determine the presence of calcium and phosphorus. The approach is reliable and non-destructive.

• Differences between human and non-human skeletal remains are primarily differences in architecture (shape) as a result of differences in locomotion (bipedalism versus quadrupedalism).

• The determination of human or non-human origin is typically accomplished by gross visual examination, but other techniques that may be employed include histology or protein-based methods such as protein radioimmunoassay (pRIA).

• The determination of contemporary or non-contemporary is typically based on

observations of taphonomy, context, and biocultural information. Radiocarbon

dating may also be useful.

• Artifacts are an example of contextual information that may provide clues regarding whether remains are contemporary or non-contemporary. Artifacts include personal effects (items belonging to the deceased individual) and grave goods (items deposited with the deceased individual by other persons).

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