The Sociocultural Approach Revision

SAQ and ERQ Studies

Social catergorisation

The process by which people catergorize themselves and others into groups. This simplifies and helps us make sense of our social world

Social Identification

The process of conforming to the behaviours and values of your in-group

Social comparison

We look to other groups to justify the membership in our own group

In group bias

The tendency for people to give preferential treatment to others who belong to the same group as you

Out group homogeneity bias

The tendency to assume that the members of other groups are very similar to each other

Salience

When we are aware of one of our social idenities, plays a key role in behaviour

SIT Theory studies to use

Tajfel et al and Abrams

Tajfel (1971) Aim

To see if forming ingroups and outgroups established a social identity theory and had an influence on behaviour

Tajfel (1971) Research Methods

Lab Experiment - highly controlled and tasks were very artificial

Quantitative data used

Tajfel (1971) Sampling Methods

48 boys aged 14 - 15

Tajfel (1971) Procedures

Asked to rate 12 paintings by Klee and Kandinsky.

Then randomly allocated into two groups and told they prefered either artist.

Each boy given the chance to award points to other boys, one from the same group as him and the other from the “outgroup.” The only information they were given were the code numbers and names of the two boys.

If a Klee member chose high value for another Klee member, the outgroup would get a higher profit. If a mid value was chosen, the same points were awarded to the other team. If a low values was chosen, only one point was given to the other group.

Tajfel (1971) Results

When the boys had to choose to maximise profit for everyone or maximise just for their group, they favoured their own group.

They were also willing to give their team fewer points in order to maximise the difference between the two groups.

Tajfel (1971) Conclusion

Outgroup discrimination is very easy to trigger and once triggered we have norms of behaviour that include discriminating the outgroup.

There is a natural tendency to favour the ingroup from the outgroup

Tajfel Strengths and Limitations

Strengths:
Highly controlled as it is a lab experiment so can be repeated to increase reliability
Cause and effect relationship can be established
Limitations:
Highly artificial task so may not reflect how the boys would have interacted in a more natural setting (low ecological validity)
Some boys interpreted the task as competitive and tried to “win” so demand characteristics may affect the results
British schoolboys used as sample - not able to generalise findings

Abrams et al (1990) Aim

To see whether one’s in-group identity would affect one’s willingness to conform.

Abrams (1990) Research Methods

Two different variables were manipulated in this experiment

Abrams (1990) Sampling Methods

Independent Samples design

50 first year psychology students

Abrams (1990) Procedures

Three confederates (actors) were introduced as either first year psychology students (ingroup) or ancient history students (outgroup) from the same university. The participants were told not to speak to each other.

They were shown a line and then three other lines and they had to pick which of the three lines was the same length as the stimulus line. 18 trials took place and in half of them, the confederates gave a unanimous incorrect answer. The three confederates sat in a line with the participant at the end, and they had to say their answers one at a time down the line (public condition).

They also did a private condition where the participant had to write down the answers of the confederates as well as their own.

Abrams (1990) Results

77% of participants conformed to the incorrect answer at least once. No gender differences were observed.

The proportion of conformed answers was 32% which was similar to the original Asch Experiment.

The largest amount of confomity was seen in the ingroup public condition whereas least was seen in the outgroup public condition.

In group and outgroup private conditions didn’t differ significantly

Abrams (1990) Conclusion

Social Catergorisation can play a key role in one’s decision to conform publicly.

We tend to exaggerate the difference between us and the outgroup while feeling like the members of our ingroup and us share a common trait. Therefore ingroup members are seen more as correct and there is increased saliency.

Abrams Strengths and Limitations

Strengths:
Results matched previous experiment (Asch) increases reliability
Large sample size
Variables manipulated

Limitations:
Demand characteristics - psychology students may be more aware that they are in a study/ may have knowledge about the nature of the study
Highly artificial task used
Low ecological validity

Social Cognitive Theory Studies

Kimball (1986) and Charlton

Kimball (1986) aim

To investigate the introduction of TV and the change in gender stereotyping

Kimball (1986) Research Methods

Naturalistic experiment

Sex Role Differentiation Scale (SRD) was usefd to measure the childrens level of gender stereotyping

Correlational study + cross sectional study

Kimball (1986) Sampling

536 children in 4 different countries

130 from Notel (no television), 135 fron Unitel (one station) 166 from multitel (more than one station) and 105 from Vancouver (control)

Kimball (1986) Procedures

SRD was administered to all students in grades 6 and 9 in each of the three towns before TV introduced and 2 years after. The control group’s data was obtained from a previous study done 8 months before the study began.

The children filled the questionnaire during normal class time and responses were anonymous

Kimball (1986) Results

The introduction of TV increased levels of gender stereotyping

2 years after Notel introduced television, gender stereotyping significantly increased in both the boys and the girls. There was no significant difference between stereotyping scores among the boys in the three town

Kimball (1986) Conclusion

The kids were watching behaviour and mimicing the behaviour, therefore this is an example of social cognitive theory

Kimball (1986) Strengths and Limitations

Limitations:
No ability to control for extraneous variables as naturalistic study
Low internal validity and this is a correlational relationship as no causality can be determined
Temporal validity - low as the study is dated

Strengths:
Naturalistic - high ecological validity
Large sample size
Anonymous responses reduces demand characteristics

Charlton (2002) Aim

To see how television affects one’s behaviour

Charlton (2002) Research Methods

Correlational Study

Naturalistic Study

Charlton (2002) Sampling Methods

160 children in St Helena (ages 3 to 8)

Charlton (2002) Procedures

Psychologists from the UK used the oppourtunity of TV being introduced into St Helena.

Cameras were set up in the playgrounds of two primary schools and behaviour of children was observed before and after introduction of television

A content analysis of the television programs showed little difference in the quantity or level of violence watched when compared with chidren in the UK.

Interview data from teachers was also collected.

Charlton (2002) Results

No increase in antisocial behaviour among children - good behaviour had been maintained in the five years since television had been introduced

Charlton (2002) Conclusion

Television does not necessarily lead to violence but there is a set of factors that play an important role in whether or not a child will imitate what they see

Charlton (2002) Strengths and Limitations

Strengths:
Natural experiment - high ecological validity
Data triangulation was used - interviews and video footage carried out
Pretest post test design used which allows a change overtime to be observed

Limitations:
Low internal validity - lack of control variables
Reliability of the findings is hard to establish as it is not easilt replicable

Charlton and Kimball Analysis

The two studies were very similar but had different results. A potential reason for this may be that models on the British TV Station in Charlton (2002) were people that the children could not identify with. The models were white, middle to upper class and British.
Another potential reason is that the children didn’t have the feeling of self efficacy - they did not feel that they could behave in the same way as the television.

Formation of Stereotypes Studies

Schaller

Rogers and Franz

Schaller (1991) Aim

To investigate the origin of stereotypes when there is the presence of ingroups and outgroups

Schaller (1991) Research Methods

Controlled Lab conditions
True experiment
Cause and effect

Schaller (1991) Sampling

141 introductory psych students

Schaller (1991) Procedures

The participants were randomly assigned group A or group B, or a control with no social catergorisation
They were told that there was more people in group A compared to group B. They were given a booklet with a series of statements that described members in both the group they had been assigned to and the other group. There was an equal number of positive an negative statements for each group.
They were then given a list of traits and asked to rank each group on a 10 point scale.Sc

Schaller (1991) Results

When asked about their own group they recalled stereotyping statements that favoured their own group (ingroup bias)
They also focussed more on negative statements about outgroup

The control group had no significant difference in its rating of groups A and B

Schaller (1991) Conclusion

This is an example of the formation of stereotypes caused by the presence of ingroups and outgroups, in which we can favour our own group and only focus on negatives of outgroup.

Schaller (1991) Strengths + LImitations

Strengths:
Cause + Effect relationship establish
Controlled lab conditions - control of confounding variables
Large sample size
Limitations:
Random assignment is not an accurate representation of social identity theory as we tend to form our own groups with people with similar characteristics as us
Highly artificial and low ecological validity in the results telling us how stereotypes would form for people in real life
Participant bias - psychology students may anticipate the nature of the experiment which may lead to demand characteristics

Roger and Frantz (1961) Aim

To see if people of Zimbabwwe would adopt the stereotypes and feelings of prejudice about the local African population

Rodger and Frantz (1961) Research Methods

Survey - likert scale but with only 4 options to stop middle score being chosen

Cross sectional study

Rodgers and Franz Sampling

500 white Europeans ages 20 and over who had lived in Zimbabwe for less that 5 years to over 40 years.

Stratified sampling according to gender, place of birth, age and how long they had lived in zimbabwe

Rodgers and Frantz (1961) Procedures

Survey containing 66 examples for customs in which africans and europeans were treated differently.

Included racially segregated land, lack of political representation, and use of public facilities and cross racial relations

Participants could pick out of 4 responses with 0 being important to maintains and 6 being important for law to stop. (0,2,4,6)

Rogers and Frantz (1961) Results

Mean score was 2.45 which shows that europeans living in zimbabwe prefered status quo.
The eurpoeans who had supported status quo less strongly had lived in zimbabwe for less than 5 years.

Age, gender, area of residence and income not significant
Country of birth, occupation and political preference more significantly correlated with attitudes of race

Rodgers and frantz Conlcusion

New arrivals would inevitably change their attitudes overtime

The stereotypes about african population were integrated into the identities of the newcomers as they beagn to identify with new group and accept new social role.

Rogers and Frantz (1961) Strengths and Limitations

Strengths:
Large sample size so more generalisable
Naturalistic study
Survey reduces demand characteristics
Limitations:
The study is dated so might lack temporal validity as today more media which may play a role in influencing stereotyping
Cross sectional study means cannot determine whether an individuals attitude changes over time
Likert scale stops middle score being chosen which may express their opinions more strongly than they really are.

Effects of Stereotypes studies

Martin + Halverson

Steele and Aronson

Martin and Halverson aim

To see how gender stereotyping would influence recall in children

Martin and Halverson Research Methods

Repeated measures design (both conditions experienced)

Martin and Halverson Sampling Methods

5 + 6 year old boys and girls

Martin and Halverson (1983) Procedures

Each child was shown 16 pictures, half of which depicted a child performing stereotypical, gender consistent activities (eg a boy playing with a truck) and half of the pictures displayed gender inconsistent behaviours (eg a girl chopping wood).

One week later, the researchers tested the recall of the children and measured how well they remembered the pictures by looking at the accuracy at which they recalled them.

Martin and Halverson Results (1983)

Children easily recalled sex of actor when carrying out gender typical activities

When gender inconsistent, the children often distorted the scene by saying that the actor’s gender was consistent with the activity

Martin and Halverson Conclusion (1983)

When stereotyping is strong enough, you can have a change in memory because of the stereotype (memory distortion)

Martin and Halverson Strengths and Limitations

Strengths:
Easily replicable due to the lab experiement being highly controlled
Researchers could replicate on other age demographics making it more generalisable
Moreover, The repeated measures design decreases participant variability which makes the results more statistically reliable. The study is also experimental meaning a cause and effect relationship can be established.

Limitations:
Because it is a laboratory experiment, it is highly controlled and therefore has low ecological validity, meaning that it may not be accurate behaviour to what is seen in real life. 

Additionally, the study has low internal validity as the children were sent home for a week, introducing a number of confounding variables. 

The sample size is not representative of the entire population, making it difficult to generalise the results of this research as young children may not have as good a memory as teenagers or adults. 

Steele and Aronson (1995) Aim

To see the effect of stereotype threat on performance.

Steele and Aronson (1995) Research Methods

Experimental - IV was operationalised by getting half of the participants to identify their race.

Data Triangulation: A correlational and experimental study done

Steele and Aronson (1995) Sampling

African American and Eurpean American participants (purposive sampling)

Steele and Aronson (1995) Procedures

The researchers carried out a 30 min verbal test on the participants made up of very difficult multiple choice questions. 

One group was told it was a genuine test of their verbal abilities while the other group was told that it was not a diagnostic of their ability. 

To establish more of a relationship between racial stereotyping and difference in test scores, the researchers triangulated this with another study where they got participants to fill in a personal information questionnaire. Half of the questionnaires got participants to identify their race.

Steele and Aronson (1995) Results

The African American students scored higher when told it was not a reflection of their intellectual ability, with similar results to their European American peers.

Those who were told it was a direct reflection of their intellectual capabilities scored significantly lower than the European American participants.

African Americans who identified their race did poorly, while those who did not did just as well as their European peers.

Steele and Aronson (1995) Conclusion

You don’t need a stereotype for it to affect your performance.

Stereotype threats turn on spotlight anxiety which causes emotional distress and pressure that may undermine your performance.
Students under stereotype trheat often underperform and naturally limit their educational prospects

Steele and Aronson (1995) Strengths and Limitations

Limitations
The results of the study are not generalizable as the presence of certain stereotypes in the US may not be as prominent in the rest of the world. 

There is also a problem with construct validity as the level of spotlight anxiety cannot be measured, therefore it is assumed that it was the anxiety caused by the stereotype rather than performance anxiety that led to the results.

Strengths
This study is ethical as the participants were presumably debriefed after the experiment and their identities remained anonymous.

Another strength of the study is that the use of data triangulation makes the results more reliable.

Berry (1967) Aim

To meaasure the level of conformity in both individualistic and collectivist societies by applying a version of the Asch Paragdim

Berry (1967) Research Methods

Lab experiment - controlled environment with no extraneous variables

Quasi-experiment - IV was manipulated but the participants could not be randomly allocated to condition - correlation

Berry (1967) Sampling Methods

Using 3 distinctly different cultures from Sierra Leone, Inuit from Baffin Island, Scots as a reference
Approximately 120 in each group

Berry (1967) Procedures

Each person was brought into a room by themselves. They were given a set of nine lines. There were two practices where participant had to match the stimulus line to the correct line. Directions given in own language
After the first two trials there were four more trials. On the third trial they were told that most people in another group selected a certain line before asking what they chose.
In trials 4 - 6 the wrong answer was given

Berry (1967) REsults

The Temne had the highest level of conformity and inuits had lowest level. There was no difference within the group

Berry (1967) Conclusion

It is likely that the Temne had the highest level of conformity due to it being a very collectivist culture.

Berry (1967) Strengths and Limitations

Strengths:
The study is highly replicable so it increases the reliability of the findings.
The study is dated and lacks temporal validity. With more access to media, there is the question of whether conformity levels would be the same.

Limitations:
It is important when we are familiar with these findings that we don’t make the ecological fallacy (believing that since someone is part of a group they would be more or less likely to conform). The results of this kind of research can lead to stereotyping about cultural groups.

Cultural Dimensions Studies to use

Berry (1967)
Chen

Acculturation Studies

Luek & Wilson
Wang et al (2010)

Enculturation Studies

Kimball
Fagot

Chen et al (2005) Aim

To investigate the role of Long-term orientation on an individual’s buying habits

Chen (2005) Sampling

149 bi-cultural participants from a Singaporean university

Random assignment

Chen (2005) Research Methods

Conducted online

Lab experiment

Chen (2005) Procedures

Participants were primed in order to make either their Singaporean or their American identity more salient
They were first shown a collage of 12 photos that represented their culture. After looking at images they had to write down as many of the items as they could remember.

After priming participants then given shopping scenario to buy a novel online. They were told the standard delivery cost was 2.99 singaporean dollars. They were then told that it would take 5 business days to recieve the delivery but could pay extra to get the book in one day. Participants asked how much extra they were willing to pay.

They were then asked to name 3 politicians that came to mind.

Chen (2010) Results

People whose Western cultural values became more salient through priming place a higher value on immediate consumption than those whse eastern cultural values became more salient.
Participants listed politicians that were relevant to the culture that they had been primed for.

Chen (2010) Conclusion

After becoming salient of their eastern or western values, the participants identified more with the cultural dimension that aligned with their culture.
Eastern countries have a long term orientation - which is seen as they weren’t as focused on immediate consumption.
Western countries have a short term orientation, hence they were more focused on their current needs and getting the delivery straight away.

Chen (2010) Strengths and Limitations

Strengths:
The final test on politicians was used to see if the priming had been successful and therefore likely affected the participants decision
Naturalistic as study done online about online shopping
Highly standaerdized to establish reliability

Limitations:
Study took place in Singapore - may be a confounding variable
Study was done online - difficult to control variables

Lueck and Wilson (2010) Aim

To investigate the variables that may predict acculturative stress.

Lueck & Wilson (2010) Research Methods

Semi structured interview format

Lueck and Wilson (2010) Sampling

A nationally representative sample of asian immigrants and asian americans.

2095 asian americans, 1271 were first generation immigrants and the rest was born in US to first gen immigrant parents

Lots of Asian cultures used

Lueck and Wilson (2010) Procedures

Semi structures interviews carried out - interviewer had similar cultural and linguistic backgrounds. Conducted either over internet or face to face

Interviews used to measure the aprticipants level of acculturative stress, measured language proficieny, language preference, discrimination, social networks, family cohesion and socioeconomic status on acculturative stress.

Lueck and Wilson (2010) Results

70% of participants have acculturative stress

Lueck and Wilson (2010) Conclusion

A bilingual language preference contributed to lower acculturative stress. Asians who were able to use both languages equally with their friends are able to build up new networks of support within and outside their community.

Sharing similar values with family contributed to lower acc stress

Prejudice, xenophobia and negative treatment contributed to lower acc stress

Lueck and wilson Strengths and Limitations

Strength:
Semistructured interviews are more personal then questionnaire - qualitative data
Allows follow up questions to be asked if answer is unclear or unsatisfactory
Large sample size and diverse

Limitation:
Semistructured interviews are time consuming and costly. They are also open to interviewer effects - where characteristics of the interviewer may lead to interviewee to disclose less information
Constructs of acc stress and level of acculturation are subjective
Ecological fallacy - assumptions made that Asians have same family values which makes data less reliable

Wang et al (2010) Aim

To test the relationship between the dimensions of acculturation and positive psychological functioning.

Wang (2010) Research Methods

Survey used

Wang et al (2010) Sampling Method

119 cuban american university students doing an intro to psychology course - all students had at least one parent who was born in Cuba. 80% female. 23% born outside US.

Wang (2010) Procedure

Participants were asked to fill in an online survey. All of the questions were presented in Likert-scale format.

The researchers wanted to test the relationship between the dimensions of acculturation and positive psychological functioning. The dimensions were: relationship with the Cuban culture, relationship with US culture, and ethnic identification. Positive psychological functioning was measured by levels of depression, anxiety, and self-esteem.

Wang et al (2010) Results

Biculturalism was linked with higher self esteem, lower depression and lower anxiety

Wang (2010) Conclusion

Biculturalism leads to lower levels of depression and anxiety

Wang Strengths and Limitations

Strengths:
Ethically sound - survey anonymous
Large sample size
Survey may reduce demand characteristics

Limitations:
Very specific sample - may not be generalised to other cultures
There may be a language / interpretation barrier

Assimilation (SAQ) Study

Lueck and Wilson

Fagot (1978) Aim

To research the role that parents may play in gender-role development