Issues and Debates

Paper 3 Content

What is universality?

This claims that conclusions drawn can be applied to everyone regardless of time or culture - gender bias and cultural bias threaten the **universality** of findings in psychology.

What is gender bias?

Psychological research or theory offering a view that does not represent the experience or behaviour of men or women (usually women).

What is alpha bias?

Theories that suggest that there are real and enduring differences between men and women. These typically undervalue females.

What is beta bias?

Theories that ignore or minimise differences between the sexes.

What is essentialism?

The perspective that gender difference is inevitable (essential) and fixed in nature

What is androcentrism?

Male-centred; when ‘normal’ behaviour is judged to a male standard (meaning female behaviour is often judged to be ‘abnormal’ or ‘deficient’ by comparison.

What is reflexivity?

A reflective process taken by psychologists on their research whcih considers the effect their own values and assumptions have on their work.

How have male psychologists lead to bias?

Predominance of male psychologists has lead to biased theories based on a male perspective.

How does bias undermine psychology’s claim to universality?

Bias may be an inevitable part of the research process - we all possess beliefs and values. This undermines psychology’s claim to universality.

What is an example of alpha bias?

**Freud**: Electra and Oedipus complex. Girls have weaker idenitification with their same-sex parent, so weaker conscience and moral development.

What is an example of beta bias?

**Kohlberg’s theory and fight/flight:** Women were absent from the research but findings were applied to all - i.e., seen to be universal.

How does androcentrism lead to female behaviour being pathologised?

Androcentrism is when normal behaviour is judged from the male standard meaning that female behaviour can be judged as ‘abnormal’ or ‘inferior’. Can lead to female behaviour being pathologised e.g., female aggression explained by PMS, therefore medicalising female emotions

Implications of gender bias

May validate sterotypes and discrimination, e.g. research into PMS and the role of the father.

Sexism within the research process

* Research questions orientated to male concerns.
* Preference for results showing gender differences
* Lab experiments disadvantage women.

Reflexivity

Being ‘up-front’ about one’s biases and preconceptions can reduce gender bias (Dambrin and Lambert)

Essentialism

Gender differences presented as ‘fixed’ in nature, often politically motivated e.g. women told attending university would ‘shrivel their ovaries’

Feminist Psychology

Worrell proposes that research should be collabrative and in context, producing qualitative data

What is cultural bias?

The tendency to ignore cultural differences and interpret all phenomena through the ‘lens’ of one’s own culture

What is ethnocentrism?

Judging other cultures by the standards and values of one’s own culture. In it’s extreme form it is the belief in the superiority of one’s own culture which may lead to prejudice and discrimination towards other cultures.

What is imposed etic?

A technique or theory developed in one culture and then used to study the behaviour of people in a different culture with different norms,values, experiences etc. With an ‘etic approach’ the researcher is outside of the culutre.

What is emic?

An ‘emic approach’ functions from within or inside certain cultures identifiying behaviours specific culture.

What is cultural relativism?

The idea that norms and values, as well as ethics and moral standars, can only be meaningful and understood within specific social and cultural contexts.

What is an individualistic culture?

A group of people who value the rights and interests of the indiviudals. Concerned with independence and slef-assertiveness. Typically small families and western cultures.

What is a collectivist culture?

A group of people who place more value on the ‘collective’ rather than the individual. Value interdependence rather than independence.

What are demand characteristics?

Any cue from the researcher or from the research situation that may be interpreted by participants as giving the purpose of the investigation. The participants may then change their behaviour.

What is the DSM-5?

The Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders is a classification system of mental disorders published by the ASA. Gives typical symptoms to help clinicians make a diagnosis

What is the ICD-10?

The most recent version (1993) of the International Classification of Disorders published by WHO.

What is culutre-bound syndromes?

Mental disorders that are unique to particular cultures (CBSs)

How is psychology culturally biased?

Psychology is dominated by American researchers and studies, yet many psychologists claim to have discovered ‘facts’ about human behaviour that are ‘universal’

Universality and bias

Mainstream psychology has generally ignored cultural differences e.g. the results from Asch’s conformity studies and Milgram’s obedience studies were very different when replicated in other parts of the world. Seeing one culture’s results as the ‘norm’ can lead to cultural bias.

Ethnocentrism

Where one’s own culture is seen as the ‘norm’ or ‘standard’ therefore superior culture, e.g., Ainsworth’s ideal attachment type. Results from Germany analysed mothers as ‘cold and rejecting’.

Cultural bias in diagnosis

Cochrane and Sashidharan (1995) found African-Carribean immigrants were seven times more likely to be diagnose with a mental illness. Led many to question the validity of the DSM and ICD. DSM introduced CBCs suggesting the manuals had been ethnocentric.

Cultural Relativism

Berry suggested that psychology has taken an **etic** approach (Ainsworth) and should be **emic** ( acknowledging cultural relativism)

Individualism - Collectivism

* Distinction may be too simple
* May no longer apply ; Takano and Osaka found no evidence when studying the USA and Japan . Argue global communication such as the Internet means increased interconnectedness.
* Is cultural bias less of an issue than it once was.Is cultural bias less of an issue than it once was.

Cultural relativism vs. universality

* It should not be assumed that all human behaviours are culturally specific, there are some universals.
* E.g. attachemnt (interactional synchrony) and the facial expressions of emotion (e.g. happiness,disgust)

Unfamiliarity with research tradition

Demand characteristics are more likely in an unfamiliar e.g. some cultures may lack understanding or ‘faith’ in science

Operationalisation of variables

Some behaviours may not be expressed in the same way, e.g. displays of agression may be culturally relative (eye contact in Japan)

What is free will?

The notion that humans can make choices and are not determined by biological or external forces

What is determinism?

The view that an individual’s behaviour is shaped or controlled by internal or external forces rather than their free will

What is hard determinism?

Implies that free will is not possible as our behaviour is always caused by internal or external events beyond our control

What is soft determinism?

All events, including human behaviour, have causes, but behaviour can also be determined by our conscious choices.

What is biological determinism?

The belief that behaviour is caused by biological (genetic, hormonal , evolutionary) influences that ww cannot control ,E.g. The **Autonomic Nervous System (ANS)** when we are stressed or anxious.

What is environmental determinism?

The belief that behaviour is caused by features of the environment (such as systems of reward and punishment) that we cannot control.

What is psychic determinism?

The belief that behaviour is caused by unconscious conflicts that we cannot control.

What is falsification?

It suggests that for a theory to be considered scientific it must be able to be tested and proven false

What is Locus of Control?

The sense we have about what controls events in our lives. *Internals* believe that they are responsible for what happens, *external*s believe that it is a matter of luck or outside forces.

What is Social Learning Theory?

A way of explaining behaviour that includes both direct and indirect reinforcement therefore combining learning theory with the role of cognitive factors

What is reciprocal determinism?

A person's behaviour both influences and is influenced by personal factors and the social environment, therefore element of free will.

What do most psychologists accept?

They accept the role of determinism in behaviour to some degree

Free will

Human beings are self determining and free to choose their thoughts and actions - **Humanistic Approach**

Hard determinism

All behaviour has a cause that can be identified to uncover laws - aims of science

Soft determinism

All behaviour has a cause but there is room for manoeuvre; people have conscious mental control over their behaviour (Cognitive approach)

Biological Determinism

Many physiological and neurological process not under conscious control e.g. ANS during periods of stress. Also role of genes in mental disorders and hormones e.g. Aggressive behaviour

Environmental determinism

Behaviourists such as Skinner see free will as an ‘illusion’. Argue all behaviour is due to conditioning and reinforcement from environment and agents of socialisation (E.g. Parents, teachers)

Psychic determinism

Freud also claimed that free will is an illusion. Behaviour due to unconscious conflicts repressed in childhood.

Determinism - the case for…

* Scientific approach is valuable. Has led to development of treatments & therapies, E.g. Schizophrenia drugs.
* No one would ‘choose’ to have schizophrenia - which casts doubt on free will

Determinism - the case against…

* Not consistent with the legal system, offenders are morally accountable for their actions.
* Determinism is unfalsifiable as based on the idea that a cause of an event sill always exist even though one may not have been found - impossible to prove wrong

Free will - case for…

* Everyday experience suggests free choice
* Promotes mental well-being, internal locus of control. Links to humanist psychology E.g. Rogers and client-centred therapy where personal-growth can lead to self-actualisation

Free will - the case against..

* Neurological evidence from Libet and Soon et Al. Suggests that awareness is pre determined

Compromise

The best option may be soft determinsim, approaches with a cognitive element E.g. Bandura’s SLT

What is the nature-nuture debate?

The extent to which behaviour is a product of inherited or acquired characteristics

What is Genotype?

The particular set of genes that a person possesses

What is phenotype?

The characteristics of an individual determined by both genes and the environment

What is heredity?

The genetic transmission of mental and physical characteristics from one generation to another

What is the heritability coefficient?

Used to assess heredity on a numerical range from 0 to 1. 1 would be entirely genetically determined.

What are nativists?

Argue human characteristics and even some knowledge are innate - due to heredity E.g. Descartes

What are empiricists?

Argue that the mind is a blank state at birth - learning and experience due to the environment. E.g Locke

What is environment?

Any influence on human behaviour that is non- genetic; e.g. pre-natal experiences in womb; cultural and historical influences at a societal level

What is concordance rates?

A measure of similarity (usually a %)

What is the interactionist approach?

Believe a range of factors including biolgical and psychological are involved in the development of behaviour

What is the diathesis-stress model?

Interactionist approach to explaining, e.g. psychopathology is caused by a biological/genetic vunerability (the diathesis) which is only expressed when there is a biological or enivronmental ‘trigger’ (the stressor)

What is epigenetics?

Changes in our genetic activity wuthout changing our genetic code - caused by interaction with the environment , e.g. diet, smoking, war , that leave epigenetic ‘marks’ on our DNA and may influence geneticncodes kd next generation

What is determinism?

The view that an individual’s behaviour is shaped or controlled by internal or external forces rather than their free will.

What is eugenics?

A movement that advocated that the human gene pool could be improved by encouraging reproduction of those with desirable traits

What is behaviour shaping?

Using operant conditioning to teach a complex procedure by successively rewarding behaviours that are closer and closer to the target behaviour

Nature

Nativists argue human characteristics are determined by heredity and this can be measured using a heritability coefficient

Nurture

Lerner identified different levels of the pre- and post- natal environment

Heredity and environment

Nature and nurture influences can not be logically separated, e.g. Is a high concordance rate in twin studies due to shared genetics or shared upbringing

Interactionist approach

Attachment (temperament of child will influence parenting , which then influences the child's behaviour)

Diathesis - stress model

Explain psychopathology

Epigenetics

lnteractions between genes and the environment may affect future generations

Implications of nativism

Nativism holds an extreme determinist stance. It may indirectly promote eugenicist philosophy

Implications of empiricists

By suggesting behaviour can be changed by the environment , behaviour shaping has been applied in therapy . In the extreme, suggests a model of society where citizens can be controlled and 'shaped' - 'Big Brother' society

Shared and unshared environments

Sibilings raised together may have very different experiences ; explain MZ twins with different concordance rates.

Genotype -environment interactio n

Gene-environment interaction includes passive, evocative and active forms, pointing to a complex and multi-layered relationship between nture and nurture

What is Holism?

An argument or theory which proposes that it only makes sense to study an indivisible system rather than its constituent parts

What are Gestalt psychologists?

Group of German researchers working in the 20s and 30s famously declared ‘the whole is greater that the sum of its parts’, i.e. holism

What is reductionism?

The belief that human behaviour is best explained by breaking it down into smaller constituent parts

What is parsimony?

Scientific principle that all phenomena should be explained using the most basic priniciples

What is biological reductionism?

A form of reductionism which attempts to explain social and psychological phenomena at a lower biological

What is environmental reductionism?

The attempt to explain all behaviour in terms of stimulus-response links that have been learned through experience

What is deindividuation?

Where people will do things in groups they otherwise would not because they feel less responsible for their actions and less like an individual

What is the interactionist approach?

A broad approach to explaining behaviour which acknowledges that a range of factors, including biological and psychological factors are involved in the development of behaviour

What is the diathesis-stress model?

Interactionist approach - e.g. OCD is explained as a result of both an underlying vulnerability and a trigger

Holism

The Gestalt approach valued holism - importance of studying behaviour and experience - the whole person or behaviour. View shared by humanistic psychologists E.g., Rogers client-centred therapy

Reductionism

Analyses behaviour by breaking it down into constituent parts. Relate to the prinicple of parsimony

Levels of explanation in psychology

Socio-cuktural, psychological, physical, physiological, neurochemical

Biological reductionism

Explaining behaviour through physiological processes. The effect of drugs on the brain has furthered understanding of biochemical processes

Environmental reductionism

Behaviourists are concerned only with learning at a physical level (and ignore cognitive mental processes)

The case for holism

Most complete understanding because it includes social and group context, e.g. SPE looked at conformity to social roles and the deindividuation of the prisoners and guards - impossible to study as individuals