Human Evolution Final

Louis and Mary Leakey

Excavated Olduvai from 30’s to early 80s, son Richard, DIL Maeve, granddaughter Louise

Cradle of Humankind World Heritage Site

Main homin site in souther Africa near Johannesburg, cluster of fossil bearing sites, designated UNESCO site in 1999

Faunal Assemblages

Collection of animal remains found at a site that indicates paleoenvironment

Stable Isotope Analysis

Can show what was eaten and where the food source came from, used on human and animal bones and tooth enamel, Carbon, Nitrogen, Strontium, carried up the food chain

C3 Plants

Found in forest or woodlands, fruits, leaves, edible parts of trees, bushes, and shrubs, chimps eat almost exclusively C3 plants

C4 Plants

Found in savannahs, seeds, leaves, roots, and tubers from sedges and tropical grasses

Dental Microwear Analysis

Examine microwear on tooth surface using scanning electron microscope to determine whether hominins were eating foods that were hard, soft, tough, or fibrous

Honing Wear

Wear on back of the upper canine caused by the tooth’s rubbing against the lower premolar, seen in apes

Apical wear

Wear on tip of upper canine, point of contact between upper canine and lower teeth when jaws are closed

Phytolith Analysis

Can be extracted from dental calculus and maybe stone tool edges to reveal types of plants consumed

Phytolith

Microscopic silica structures formed in the cells of certain plants

Stone tool marks

V shaped marks under eletron microscope

Taphonomic activity marks

Weathering by elements, predator chewing, animal trampling, plant and tree root activity leaves U shaped marks under electron microscope

Location of marks

Stone tool cuts made after damage caused by carnivore teeth indicates hominin scavenging of leftovers or bone marrow, on hominin bones suggest cannibalism or another meat eating hominin species

Breccia

Hard calcite sedimentary rock

Volcanic tufts

Rock made from ash of ancient volcanic eruptions

Lithic

Related to stone

Holotype

Single specimen that a species or taxon is described or named after

Gracile

Slender with less pronounded features

Prognathic

Area of the face below the eyes juts out anteriorly

Orthognathic

Area of face below eyes is relatively flat and does not jut out anteriorly

Sahelanthropus tchadensis

Pre-Australopith, discovered by Michel Brunet in 2001 in Chad, 7.2-6.8 mya, lived in river or lakeside environment surrounded by a variety of habitats, possible last common ancestor, cranial capacity 320-380, large brow ridges and sagittal crest but relatively orthognathic, slightly more anteriorly positioned foramen magnum, no diastema, small canines and apical wear, more arboreal adaptations with certain traits indicative of occasional bipedalism, more cranial than post cranial fragments

Orroin tugenensis

Pre-Australopith, discovered by Brigitte Senut and Martin Pickford in 2001 central Kenya, 6.2-5.7 mya, lived in woodland habitat close to lake or stream, no cranial remains, handful of teeth and part of a jaw, partial limbs and finger bones, lower limbs indicative of bipedal locomotion, smaller canines byt canine honing complex present, humerus and finger bones indicate good climbing abilities, probably lived and fed in trees while walking on land, base of human family tree with more ape like features, first species that indicates bipedalism adaptations, more post cranial than cranial fragments

Ardipithecus kadabba

Pre-Australopith, disputed species, discovered by Tim White and Yohannes Haile-Selassie in Middle Awash Valley Ethiopia, 5.4-5.8 my old, wooded environment, probably bipedal based on one toe bone, perihoning complex: still has chimp like honing complex but hominin like apical wear

Ardipithecus ramidus

Pre-Australopith, discovered by Tim White in 1994 in Aramis Ethiopia, 4.4 mya, woodland or forest based on faunal assemblage and carbon isotope analysis, cranial capacity of 300-350 cm, fragments from over 30 individuals, males only slightly larger than females in body and canine size, primative trait hallux, derived trait pelvis

Ardi

Ardipithecus ramidus, almost complete but fragmented female skeleton, around 4ft, 110 lbs, no canine honing complex, pelvis adapted for bipedally but also climb well, habitual biped, curved fingers allowed for grasping branches, more flexible wrist than chimps, no opposable thumb, widely divergent big toe, probable difficulty running

Australopithecus anamensis

Discovered by Maeve Leakey in East Lake Turkana Kenya, 1995, 4.2-3.8 mya, cranial capacity of 370 cm, high degree of sexual dimorphism, combination of hominin and ape like traits in jaws, teeth, and post cranial remains, small brain, large canines, woodland/forest areas, may be ancestral to Australopithecus afarensis, MRD cranium found in 2016 in Woranso-Mille Ethopia had forward projecting cheekbones, deep palate and projecting face, showed more difference from Au afarensis than previously thought

Australopithecus afarensis

Discovered by Don Johanson in 1974 in Hadar Ethopia, 3.9-2.8 mya, 430 cm cranial capacity, sexually dimorphic (f 3-4ft, m 5ft), savannah plant diet along with fruits and leaves, no longer missing link, larger canines than humans but smaller than apes, semi-sectoral first premolar, small diastema present, parallel tooth rows, sagittal crest, wide funnel shaped trunk, longer upper limbs than modern humans, curved fingers and toes, centrally located foramen magnum, S curve in spine, wider pelvis, straight big toe, arch in foot, Lucy, ape like features but walked bipedally

Laetoli Footprints

Discovered by Mary Leakey in 1978, 3.66 mya, 88 ft long train of 3 hominins and over 20 other animals, preserved between layers of volcanic ash, believed to be made by Au afarensis, big toe mostly in line, deep heel impression, new footprints found in 2016 with different size footprint and size, unsure if its a different species or intra-species variation

First Family

Disovered in Hadar Ethiopia in 1975, group of Au afarensis of 9 adults and 4 children, buried all at once by unknown disaster, 3.2 mya, lived in small groups based on possible family bonds

Selam or Dikika Baby

Discovered 2010 by Zeray Alemseged in Dikika Ethiopia, 3.3-3.2 mya, 2.5 years old at death, foot and lower limb indicate bipedal adaptations, shoulder and curved fingers suggest climbing abilities

Kenyanthropus platyops

Disputes species, discovered by Maeve Leakey in Lomekwi Kenya 2001, 3.5 my old, savannah and woodland diet, flat face and small molars compared to Au afarensis, projecting cheek bones, contemporary to Au afarensis but looks very different, may be Australopithecus

Lomekwian tools

Discovered by Jason Lewis and Sonia Harmand in 2012, only one site so far, 3.3 mya predating earliest stone tools, loosely associated with Kenyanthropus platyops, flakes produced by holding a rock and hitting it one another rock on the ground

Australopithecus prometheus

Disputes species, also called Little Foot, ankle bones re-examined by Ron Clarke in 1994 led to discovery of rest of skeleton at Sterkfontein Cave South Africa, either 3.7 or 2-2.2 mya, earliesr species of Australopithecus in South Africa or part of Au africanus

Australopithecus africanus

Indentified by Raymond Dart in 1924, found at limestone quarry in Taung South Africa, other fossils found by Robert Bloom in 30s and 40s at Sterkfontein Cave near Johannesburg, 3.5-2.5 mya, 440-460 cm cranial capacity, woodland, savannah, and grasslands, plant based diet with little meat, foramen magnum closer to center, rounder cranial vault, smaller canines, no diastema, curved dental arcade, reduced prognathis, pelvis/feet/legs show bipedal structures, receding forehead, slightly curved fingers and toes, funnel shaped trunk, arms a little longer than legs

Australopithecus garhi

Discovered by Tim White and Yohannes Haile Selassie in 1999 in Bouri Ethioia, very few fossil specimens, 2.5 mya, associated with meat eating based on cut marks on animal bones found, and stone tool making from stone tools found at nearby site Gona

Oldowan tools

Called mode one, Earliest stone tools found in Gona Ethiopia, 2.5 mya, Australopithecines were first stone tool makers, choppers and hammerstones made through direct percussion (flakes knocked off of a core at one end from blows from another rock), gradual improvement over time, fit easily into hand with edges that can be used for hammering, chopping, digging, requires strong precision grip

Australopithecus sediba

Discovered by Lee Berger in 2008 in Malapa Cave South Africa, less than 2 mya, 420 cm cranial capacity, lived in woodland/forest, might be a transitional species, long arms, curved fingers, primative traits in feet, smaller teeth, narrower cheekbones, less postorbital constriction, extreme lordosis of lumbar vertebrae, shorter fingers, proportionally less robust upper limbs

Paranthropus “robust” Australopithecines

2.8-1 mya, flatter face, broad cheekbones, large sagittal crest, large molars with thick enamel related to powerful chewing muscles, bipedal adaptations of pelvis and lower limbs, large muscular attachemnts on upper arm bones, finger bones show potential for tool use, traditionally thought to eat nuts but maybe not, co existed with early Homo in similar environments in Africa

Paranthropus Aethiopicus

Discovered by Alan Walker in 1985 near West Turkana Kenya, 2.7-2.3 mya, other specimens found in Ethiopia, oldest of the Paranthropus species

Paranthropus boisei

Discovered by Mary Leaky in 1959 at Olduvai Gorge, 2.5-1.4 mya, orginally classified as Zinjanthropus boisei or Zinj, most specimens found in the Turkana basin but some found in Tanzania and Malawi, microwear indicates chewing on tough foods like leaves and stems, stable isotope analysis indicates C4 plants, coexisted with early Homo in East Africa, probable tool use

Paranthropus robustus

Disvovered in 1938 at Kromdraai Cave South Africa by Gert Terblanche (schoolboy) and brought it to Robert Broom, 2-1 mya most specimens found at 4 other major cave sites in South Africa, hyper robust, more varied diet than P boisei, co-existed with Au africanus and Au sediba in South Africa, probable tool use and making with many bone and stone tools being found at sites

Homo habilis

Disovered by Mary and Louis Leaky at Olduvai Gorge Tanzania in 60s, 2.5-1.7 mya, 631-775 cm cranial capacity, robust face, large molars, overlapped with other Australopithecine species in East and South Africa

Handy Man

Original Homo habilis fossil, 1.8-1.44 mya, presence of Oldowan stone tools at same site suggesting tool making abilities

Chimp Cranial Capacity

350-400 cm

Human Cranial Capacity

1350-1400 cm

Homo Erectus

700-1200 cm cranial capacity, 1.8 mya- 500,000 ya, found in mainland Asia, western Europe, Western Eurasia, Indonesia, and east Africa, existed until 400,000 ya in Europe and Asia, possibly as late as 45,000 ya in Asia, oldest in East Africa 1.9 mya, left Africa around 1.8 mya, prominent brow ridge, pronounce postorbital constriction, low flat forehead, some prognathism but smaller than chimps and Au, large jaw and molars, smaller teeth, thick cranial bone, sagittal keel, nichal torus, widest at base of cranium, receeding chin over 100 lbs, 5’6, body and limb size/proportions more similar to modern humans than earlier hominins, more robust and heavily built, post cranial morphology almost identical to modern humans, sexually dimorphic, less body hair, approaching modern humans, advanced Oldowan tool making, first hominin to migrate out of Africa and control fire

Java Man

First Homo erectus specimen discovered in 1891 in Java Indonesia by Eugene Dubois, 1.6-1 mya, originally classified as Pithecanthropus erectus, skull cap with cranial capacity >900 cm at Trinil near Solo river, first fossil human found outside Europe or Africa, 1892 femur was found 15 yards away assumed from same individual

Zhoukoudian Cave

China, excavations in 20s and 30s revealed remains of 40 adults and children, Homo erectus, 780,000-400,00 ya, referred to as the Peking man, choppers found similar to Oldowan, retouched flakes fashioned into scrapers, points, burins, and awls, tools probably also made from perishable material like bamboo, control of fire

Nariokotome Boy

Also known as Turkana boy, discovered in 1984 by Kamoya Kimeu, Alan Walker and Richard Leaky in West Lake Turkana in Kariokotome Kenya, 1.6 mya, most complete Homo erectus specimen yet found, 8 years old, 5’3, cranial capacity 880 cm, brain growth nearly complete, lacked highly developed language center in brain

Homo erectus Pelvis

Female pelvis found in Gona Ethiopia in 2001 by Sileshi Semaw, 1.2 mya, 81 lbs, wide birth canal indicated H erectus newborns had brains almost as large as modern newborns

Homo ergaster

African variation of Homo erectus, not strongly buttressed at browridge and nuchal torus with thinner cranial bones, may be variation within the species or seperate species

Western Eurasia find

Dmanisi Republic of Georgia in 1990s and early 2000s, 1.8-1.7 mya, best preserved hominin remains this old found outside of Africa, 5ft, 600-780 cm cranial capacity, body proportions similar to H erectus, sloping forehead, wide base, sagittal keeling, thinner brow ridge, projecting lower face, relatively lare upper canines, one is toothless with bone remodeling showing that they were lost well before death, stone tools similar to Oldowan, implies that first hominins to leave Africa around 2 mya were probably smaller bodied early forms of H erectus carrying Oldowan tool culture

Norfolk England

Footprints of several indiciduals found in Happisburgh, 950,000 ya, possibly not H erectus

Ceprano Italy

900,000 -400,00 ya (possibly not H erectus)

Acheulian Tools

Mode 2, appeared in East Africa 1.5 mya, associated with Homo erectus/ergaster, required more advanced planning and skill to create, raw materials for tools transported long distances, commonly obsidion, mostly found in Africa, Europe, Middle East, bi-face hand axe, larger but thinner than Oldowan, mor worked around the edges and on both sides, symmetrical teardrop shape, light enough to be portable, hard and soft hammar percussion, flakes worked into different shapes to be knives, scrapers, and chisels, choppers similar to advanced Oldowan core found in Eurasia and asia, progressive improvement in tool making over time from complex mental templates and increased reliance on tools, animal bones at H erectus sites suggest small game hunting and scavenging of larger animals, absent at H erectus sites in East Asia

Hard Hammer Percusion

Striking a core or unfinished tool with a stone to remove flakes

Soft Hammer Percussion

Shaping an unfinished tool with pieces of hardwood, antler, or bone

OH8

Homo habilis fossil, partial left foot without heel and some toe bones, arch and general shape are similar to our own and suggest their gait was similar to ours

KNM-ER 1813

1.9 my old skull discovered in 1973 by Kamoya Kimeu in Koobi Fora East Turkana, adult skull has a brain capacity of 510 cm3, only above average for Australopithecus, might be Homo or Australopithecus

Glaciations

Confined to northern latitudes, most dramatic effects in Europe and northern Asia, climate fluctuates in southern Asia and Africa (drier) changing food resources and blocking migration

Interglacial periods

Temperatures rose, warmer in northern regions, wetter climate in souther regions, ice melted glaciers retreated towards polar regions

Archaic Homo

All middle pleistocene hominins except Neanderthals, continental differences in physical differences, increase in brain size, rounded braincase, large face, projecting brows, low forehead, more vertical nose, less angled occipital, lived in caves and open air sites, probable use of fire, wide variety of food sources including marine life, evidence of hunting, wood spears from Schöningen Germany about 400,000

Homo heidelbergensis

Archaic Homo, named after chinless mandible found in Mauer Germany, most likely that European group evolved into Neanderthals and those in Africa evolve into modern humans

Kabwe Zambia

H heidelbergensis, 600,000 -125,000 ya, massive brow ridge, sloping brow ridge, thinner cranial bones, cranial base is essentially modern

Bodo Ethiopia

H heidelbergensis, 600,000 ya, earliest evidence of H heidelbergensis in Africa, cut marks indicate defleshing of hominins by hominins, possible burial or cannibalism

Atapuerca Spain H erectus

Sima del elefante site, 1.2 mya with evidence of animal butchering, Gran Dolina site 800,000 ya, possibly not H erectus

Atapuerca Spain H heidelbergensis

Sima de los Huesos, discovered by Juan Luis Arsuaga, 500,000-400,000 ya, fragments of at least 28 individuals found in a jumble at the base of a 45ft chute that leads to a cave chamber 100 ft below ground, earliest evidence of deliberate disposal of dead in Europe, DNA analysis and morphological features indicate ancestors to Neanderthals

Dali China

H heidelbergensis, 230,000-180,000 ya, nearly complete skull showing mixture of H erectus and H sapiens characteristics, 1120 cm3 cranial capacity, best representative of H heidelbergensis in Asia

Jinniushan China

H heidelbergensis, 200,000 ya, cranial capacity 1260 cm3, thin braincase walls, modern features unexpected for the age of fossil

Homo rhodensiensis

Named after a nearly complete cranium with missing mandible found at the Broken Hill mine in Kabwe Zambia, might be the same as H heidelbergensis

Homo antecessor

Atapuerca Spain Gran Dolina, discovered by Juan Luis Arsuaga in 1994, 850,000-780,000 ya, remains of several individuals, mainly children, most bones have butchery marks consistent with meat extraction (cannibalism), jaws and teeth more primative but face and limb bones similar to modern humans and Neanderthals, only found on this one site, might be the last common ancestor between Neanderthals and modern humans

Neanderthals

130,000-28,000 ya, Europe (France, Germany), Middle East (Iraq), and Western Asia, first fossils discovered in 1848 in Gibraltar and in 1856 in Neander Valley Germany, large brow ridges, oval shaped brain case, large nasal aperature, 1450 cm3 cranial capacity, occipital bun, projecting midface, retro-molar gap, short and stout body, robust, barrel chested, powerfully muscled, large infraorbital foramen, adaptation to rigorous living in cold climates, deliberate burial of dead seen as early as 90,000 ya at Tabun, flexed position, grave goods, grave goods, speech was not limited by neurological differences but anatomical structures were different

La Chapelle-aux-Saints France

Most influential Neanderthal fossils, found in 1908, 60,000 ya, 40+ male, severe arthritis in spine, hunched posture, bowed legs from possible rickets disease, lost most teeth and jaw bone had resorbed, French scientist analyzed this and described Neanderthals as dull witted, brutish, ape-like creatures walking hunched over with a shuffling gate

Krapina Croatia

130,000-110,000 ya, 1,000 stone tools or flakes, 1,000 bone fragments representing 70 indificuals, full suite of classic Neanderthal morphology, one of the oldest intentional burial sites, necklace composed of 8 eagle talons dated to 130,000 ya, predates arrival of H sapiens in the area by 30,000 years, considered the earliest known symbolic Neanderthal artifact

Tabun Cave Israel

120,000-110,000 ya, female Neanderthal skeleton, contemporary with early modern H sapiens found in nearby caves, deliberate burial seen as early as 90,000, dug graves, bodies placed in flexed position, might have been covered with ochre, possible grave goods such as stone tools, animal bones, stone slabs, and flowers

Teshik-Tash Uzbekistan

70,000 ya, Neanderthal child, approx 8-11 years old

Shanidar Cave Iraq

Located in the Zagros Mountains, 60,000-80,000 ya, excavated by Ralph and Rose Solecki 1957-1961, found remains of 9 individuals, 7 adults and 2 children

Shanidar 1

Neanderthal man, 30-45 years old, 5’7, 1600 cm3 cranial capacity, survived numerous injuries, blow to left side of face probably causing parial or total blindness in left eye, healed injuries in right arm but lower right arm had atrophied (possible amputation) hearing loss in both ears due to extensive bony growths over ear canals, healed injuries in both legs, severe arthitis in foot likely caused limp, probably needed care to survive

Shanidar 4

Neanderthal man,, 30-45 years old, pollen of various flowers found in sould led Solecki to nickname it Flower Burial, no longer believed that flowers were placed in the grave, pollen probably introduce through animal action

Kebara Cave Israel

60,000 ya, partial male Neanderthal skeleton consisting of thorax and nearly complete pelvis, first Neanderthal hyoid bone found (important for speech)

La Ferrassie Cave France

Neanderthal, discovered 1909, 50,000 ya, 8 individuals intentionally buried including adults, children, infants, and two fetuses, teeth of La Ferrassie 1 show heavy wear and a beveling of the biting surface of the incisor teeth towards the lip, similar wear pattern of anterior teeth seen in other Neanderthal skeletons indicative of use of teeth as third hand

Vindija Croatia

Neanderthal, 42,000-32,000 ya, smaller brow ridges, slight chin development similar to early modern H sapiens from south central Europe, possible link between late Vindija Neanderthals and modern H sapiens

St Césaire France

Neanderthal, 35,000 ya, possibly coexisting with modern H sapiens, burial included discared chipped blades and hand axes (upper paleolithic) may have borrowed tool-making methods, modifying their own into the Chatelperronian industry and interbreeding with modern H sapiens

Mousterian Tools

Mode 3, associated with Neanderthals and some modern humans, people of this culture lived in open sites, saves, and rock shelters, windbreaks of poles and skins were placed at the cave opening for protention against severe weather, fire was used for cooking/warmth/light, and keeping predators at bay

Levallois Method

Generates multiple flakes from a core, unlike Acheulian tools which were prepared cores, flakes are radially removed from the top surface, final blow struck at one end removes a large flake which is the goal, associated with Neanderthals

Did Neanderthals and Modern humans interbreed

Entire nuclear genome of European Neandethals was complete in 2010 showing that Neanderthals and modern H sapiens did interbreed, divergence between modern humans and Neanderthals occurred between 440,000 and 270,000

Lagar Velho Portugal

24,000 year old fossil of a child, combination of modern human like features and Neanderthal like robusticity of limb bones and some aspects of the cranium

What happened to Neanderthals

Climate change, end of last glacial period brought flora and fauna changes that may have affection food sources, possible interbreeding, recent studies suggest by end of last glaciation populations were small and isolated, might have sufferes from overall fitness reduction from inbreeding, weaking ability to adapt to changing conditions, competition with H sapiens, no evidence of violence, anatomically modern humans outcompete Neanderthals for resources due to larger groups and presumably better tools and hunting techniques for a larger variety of animals

Legacy of Neanderthals

1-4% DNA present in modern humans, Neanderthal genes offer modern humans especially Euripeans a stronger immune responce, might have put certain people especially SOuthwest Asians at a greater risk to develop severe COVID-19

Homo Luzonensis

Discovered in Callao Cave on Luzon Island Philippines in 2007, 67,000-50,000 ya, mostly teeth and postcranial fragments, molar crown pattern similar to modern humans, large premolars like earlier hominins, smaller in stature, smallish fingers and toes, evidence of a rhino butchered with stone tools on island around 700,000 ya but unclear who did that

Denisovans

Interbred with ancestors of contemporary Chinese and Melanesians, divergence from modern human lineage 800,000 ya, common ancestor (possibly H erectus), divergence from Neanderthals 640,000 ya, 2 child finger bone and 1 adult tooth from 30,000 ya found in 2008 found by Russian scientists in Denisova cave Siberia, recently cranial fragment found in China, DNA neither modern human or Neanderthal, only fossil homin to be identified based soley on genetic evidence, DNA has adaptations for high altitude surival found in Tibetans, possible early settlers of Pacific islands, more closely related to Neanderthals than modern humans, share more DNA with modern Melanesians, aboriginal Australians, and Polynesians than other modern Asian populations

Homo floresiensis

The little people, discovered in Liang Bua Cave Flores Indonesia in 2003, adult female nicknamed Flo, remains of other individuals have found, either 18,000-13,000 ya or 100,000-60,000 ya, 3.5 ft, 417 cm3 cranial capacity, most likelt reprent an isolated island population showing insular dwarfism, stone tools dating to 1 mya, evidence of large animal hunting and butchering. evidence of fire but may be later H sapiens, broad flared hip bones, short collarbone, forward positioned shoulder joint similar to Australopiths, large flat feet, wrists resemble H erectus from Dmanisi, cranial features similar to H erectus, possibly predates H erectus, fragmentary fossils similar to H floresiensis discovered 2015 at Mata Menge in central Flores dating to 700,000, might have been older and more widespread than previously thought

Homo naledi

Discovered by Lee Berger in 2013, 335,000-236,000 ya, Rising Star Cave Dinaledi Chamber South Africa, remains of over 18 individuals show small head with very projecting face, cranial capacity of 460-610 cm3, slender body but wide hips, 4’8, human like feet and hands but long and curved fingers, diet was probably a mixture of meat and plants including nuts and tubers, coexisted with modern H sapiens, fragments of juvenile skull found alone in a hard to reach area may be deliberate burial, scratch marks on walls may be art, charcoal stains may suggest fire use, no evidence of deliberate burial/art/fire but Lee Berger thinks it was, Netflix series came out before peer review and sent remains to space

Homo sapiens

300,000 or 200,000- present, every continent except Antartica since 10,000 ya, more gracile probably for long distance running, vertical forehead, taller and rounder cranium, small brow ridges, orthognathic face, canine fossa, pyramidal mastoid process, reduced facial skeleton, rounder skull, chin, hunted many native animal species to extinction

Anatomically Modern Humans (AMH)

Homo sapien, aka early modern humans or Cro Magnon people, very slight differences between anatomically modern humans and current humans mostly in terms of bone robusticity due to dietary and cultural shift to farming

Canine Fossa

Slight depression in the maxilla slightly to the side of the root of the canine tooth

Results of new tools and cultural behaviors of the upper Paleolithic

Allows the human population to populate the world within 100,000 years and become the dominant hominin species, megafauna and megaflora extinction events whenever AMH arrive in new geographic regions, generalist specialist nich allow humans to survive any environment by changing behaviors rather than relying on biology

Jebel Irhoud Morocco

Initial discovery 1961, additional excavations in 90s and 00s, 315,000-280,00 ya, may be AMH or archaic homo, 3 young adults, 1 adolescent, 1 child, more robust skeleton, similar cranial capacity to current humans but slightly different brain organization, Irhoud 10 dates to 315,000 way older than expected

Regional Continuity or Multiregional Evolution Model

Milford Wolpoff, says that local populations of hominins in Europe, Asia, and Africa continued to evolve in their respective locations, modern humans ended up alike physically and genetically because the earliest populations originated exclusively in Africa with significant levels of gene flow between geographically dispersed populations occuring throughout the Pleistocene, through gene flow and natural selection local populations would not have evolved totally independently from one another, all hominins after H erectus are a single species H sapiens, does not tell us about origins or dispersal of early modern H sapiens, puts emphasis on anatomical similarity of fossils