Human Evolution Final

Louis and Mary Leakey

Excavated Olduvai from 30’s to early 80s, son Richard, DIL Maeve, granddaughter Louise

Cradle of Humankind World Heritage Site

Main homin site in souther Africa near Johannesburg, cluster of fossil bearing sites, designated UNESCO site in 1999

Faunal Assemblages

Collection of animal remains found at a site that indicates paleoenvironment

Stable Isotope Analysis

Can show what was eaten and where the food source came from, used on human and animal bones and tooth enamel, Carbon, Nitrogen, Strontium, carried up the food chain

C3 Plants

Found in forest or woodlands, fruits, leaves, edible parts of trees, bushes, and shrubs, chimps eat almost exclusively C3 plants

C4 Plants

Found in savannahs, seeds, leaves, roots, and tubers from sedges and tropical grasses

Dental Microwear Analysis

Examine microwear on tooth surface using scanning electron microscope to determine whether hominins were eating foods that were hard, soft, tough, or fibrous

Honing Wear

Wear on back of the upper canine caused by the tooth’s rubbing against the lower premolar, seen in apes

Apical wear

Wear on tip of upper canine, point of contact between upper canine and lower teeth when jaws are closed

Phytolith Analysis

Can be extracted from dental calculus and maybe stone tool edges to reveal types of plants consumed

Phytolith

Microscopic silica structures formed in the cells of certain plants

Stone tool marks

V shaped marks under eletron microscope

Taphonomic activity marks

Weathering by elements, predator chewing, animal trampling, plant and tree root activity leaves U shaped marks under electron microscope

Location of marks

Stone tool cuts made after damage caused by carnivore teeth indicates hominin scavenging of leftovers or bone marrow, on hominin bones suggest cannibalism or another meat eating hominin species

Breccia

Hard calcite sedimentary rock

Volcanic tufts

Rock made from ash of ancient volcanic eruptions

Lithic

Related to stone

Holotype

Single specimen that a species or taxon is described or named after

Gracile

Slender with less pronounded features

Prognathic

Area of the face below the eyes juts out anteriorly

Orthognathic

Area of face below eyes is relatively flat and does not jut out anteriorly

Sahelanthropus tchadensis

Pre-Australopith, discovered by Michel Brunet in 2001 in Chad, 7.2-6.8 mya, lived in river or lakeside environment surrounded by a variety of habitats, possible last common ancestor, cranial capacity 320-380, large brow ridges and sagittal crest but relatively orthognathic, slightly more anteriorly positioned foramen magnum, no diastema, small canines and apical wear

Orroin tugenensis

Pre-Australopith, discovered by Brigitte Senut and Martin Pickford in 2001 central Kenya, 6.2-5.7 mya, lived in woodland habitat close to lake or stream, no cranial remains, handful of teeth and part of a jaw, partial limbs and finger bones, lower limbs indicative of bipedal locomotion, smaller canines byt canine honing complex present, humerus and finger bones indicate good climbing abilities, probably lived and fed in trees while walking on land, base of human family tree with more ape like features

Ardipithecus kadabba

Pre-Australopith, disputed species, discovered by Tim White and Yohannes Haile-Selassie in Middle Awash Valley Ethiopia, 5.4-5.8 my old, wooded environment, probably bipedal based on one toe bone, perihoning complex: still has chimp like honing complex but hominin like apical wear

Ardipithecus ramidus

Pre-Australopith, discovered by Tim White in 1994 in Aramis Ethiopia, 4.4 mya, woodland or forest based on faunal assemblage and carbon isotope analysis, cranial capacity of 300-350 cm, fragments from over 30 individuals, males only slightly larger than females in body and canine size

Ardi

Ardipithecus ramidus, almost complete but fragmented female skeleton, around 4ft, 110 lbs, no canine honing complex, pelvis adapted for bipedally but also climb well, habitual biped, curved fingers allowed for grasping branches, more flexible wrist than chimps, no opposable thumb, widely divergent big toe, probable difficulty running

Australopithecus anamensis

Discovered by Maeve Leakey in East Lake Turkana Kenya, 1995, 4.2-3.8 mya, cranial capacity of 370 cm, high degree of sexual dimorphism, combination of hominin and ape like traits in jaws, teeth, and post cranial remains, woodland/forest areas, may be ancestral to Australopithecus afarensis, MRD cranium found in 2016 in Woranso-Mille Ethopia had forward projecting cheekbones, deep palate and projecting face, showed more difference from Au afarensis than previously thought

Australopithecus afarensis

Discovered by 1974 in Hadar Ethopia, 3.9-2.8 mya, 430 cm cranial capacity, sexually dimorphic (f 3-4ft, m 5ft), savannah plant diet along with fruits and leaves, no longer missing link, larger canines than humans but smaller than apes, semi-sectoral first premolar, small diastema present, parallel tooth rows, sagittal crest, wide funnel shaped trunk, longer upper limbs than modern humans, curved fingers and toes, centrally located foramen magnum, S curve in spine, wider pelvis, straight big toe, arch in foot

Laetoli Footprints

Discovered by Mary Leakey in 1978, 3.66 mya, 88 ft long train of 3 hominins and over 20 other animals, preserved between layers of volcanic ash, believed to be made by Au afarensis, big toe mostly in line, deep heel impression, new footprints found in 2016 with different size footprint and size, unsure if its a different species or intra-species variation

First Family

Disovered in Hadar Ethiopia in 1975, group of Au afarensis of 9 adults and 4 children, buried all at once by unknown disaster, 3.2 mya, lived in small groups based on possible family bonds

Selam or Dikika Baby

Discovered 2010 by Zeray Alemseged in Dikika Ethiopia, 3.3-3.2 mya, 2.5 years old at death, foot and lower limb indicate bipedal adaptations, shoulder and curved fingers suggest climbing abilities

Kenyanthropus platyops

Disputes species, discovered by Maeve Leakey in Lomekwi Kenya 2001, 3.5 my old, savannah and woodland diet, flat face and small molars compared to Au afarensis, contemporary to Au afarensis but looks very different, may be Australopithecus

Lomekwian tools

Discovered by Jason Lewis and Sonia Harmand in 2012, only one site so far, 3.3 mya predating earliest stone tools, loosely associated with Kenyanthropus platyops, flakes produced by holding a rock and hitting it one another rock on the ground

Australopithecus prometheus

Disputes species, also called Little Foot, ankle bones re-examined by Ron Clarke in 1994 led to discovery of rest of skeleton at Sterkfontein Cave South Africa, either 3.7 or 2-2.2 mya, earliesr species of Australopithecus in South Africa or part of Au africanus

Australopithecus africanus

Indentified by Raymond Dart in 1924, found at limestone quarry in Taung South Africa, other fossils found by Robert Bloom in 30s and 40s at Sterkfontein Cave near Johannesburg, 3.5-2.5 mya, 440-460 cm cranial capacity, woodland, savannah, and grasslands, plant based diet with little meat, foramen magnum closer to center, rounder cranial vault, smaller canines, no diastema, curved dental arcade, reduced prognathis, pelvis/feet/legs show bipedal structures, receding forehead, slightly curved fingers and toes, funnel shaped trunk, arms a little longer than legs

Australopithecus garhi

Discovered by Tim White and Yohannes Haile Selassie in 1999 in Bouri Ethioia, very few fossil specimens, 2.5 mya, associated with meat eating based on cut marks on animal bones found, and stone tool making from stone tools found at nearby site Gona

Oldowan tools

Called mode one, Earliest stone tools found in Gona Ethiopia, 2.5 mya, Australopithecines were first stone tool makers, choppers and hammerstones made through direct percussion (flakes knocked off of a core at one end from blows from another rock), gradual improvement over time, fit easily into hand with edges that can be used for hammering, chopping, digging, requires strong precision grip

Australopithecus sediba

Discovered by Lee Berger in 2008 in Malapa Cave South Africa, less than 2 mya, 420 cm cranial capacity, lived in woodland/forest, might be a transitional species, long arms, curved fingers, primative traits in feet, smaller teeth, narrower cheekbones, less postorbital constriction, extreme lordosis of lumbar vertebrae, shorter fingers, proportionally less robust upper limbs

Paranthropus “robust” Australopithecines

2.8-1 mya, flatter face, braod cheekbones, large sagittal crest, large molars with thick enamel related to powerful chewing muscles, bipedal adaptations of pelvis and lower limbs, large muscular attachemnts on upper arm bones, finger bones show potential for tool use, traditionally thought to eat nuts but maybe not, co existed with early Homo in similar environments in Africa

Paranthropus Aethiopicus

Discovered by Alan Walker in 1985 near West Turkana Kenya, 2.7-2.3 mya, other specimens found in Ethiopia, oldest of the Paranthropus species

Paranthropus boisei

Discovered by Mary Leaky in 1959 at Olduvai Gorge, 2.5-1.4 mya, orginally classified as Zinjanthropus boisei or Zinj, most specimens found in the Turkana basin but some found in Tanzania and Malawi, microwear indicates chewing on tough foods like leaves and stems, stable isotope analysis indicates C4 plants, coexisted with early Homo in East Africa, probable tool use

Paranthropus robustus

Disvovered in 1938 at Kromdraai Cave South Africa by Gert Terblanche (schoolboy) and brought it to Robert Broom, 2-1 mya most specimens found at 4 other major cave sites in South Africa, hyper robust, more varied diet than P boisei, co-existed with Au africanus and Au sediba in South Africa, probable tool use and making with many bone and stone tools being found at sites

Homo habilis

Disovered by Mary and Louis Leaky at Olduvai Gorge Tanzania in 60s, 2.5-1.7 mya, 631-775 cm cranial capacity, robust face, large molars, overlapped with other Australopithecine species in East and South Africa

Handy Man

Original Homo habilis fossil, 1.8-1.44 mya, presence of Oldowan stone tools at same site suggesting tool making abilities

Chimp Cranial Capacity

350-400 cm

Human Cranial Capacity

1350-1400 cm

Homo Erectus

700-1200 cm cranial capacity, 1.8 mya- 500,000 ya, found in mainland Asia, western Europe, and east Africa, existed until 400,000 ya in Europe and Asia, possibly as late as 45,000 ya in Asia, oldest in East Africa 1.9 mya, left Africa around 1.8 mya, prominent brow ridge, pronounce postorbital constriction, lowe flat forehead, some prognathism but smaller than chimps and Au, large jaw and molars, smaller teeth, thick cranial bone, sagittal keel, nichal torus, widest at base of cranium, over 100 lbs, 5’6, body and limb size/proportions more similar to modern humans than earlier hominins, more robust and heavily built, post cranial morphology almost identical to modern humans, sexually dimorphic, less body hair, approaching modern humans, advanced Oldowan tool making

Java Man

First Homo erectus specimen discovered in 1891 in Java Indonesia by Eugene Dubois, 1.6-1 mya, originally classified as Pithecanthropus erectus, skull cap with cranial capacity >900 cm at Trinil near Solo river, first fossil human found outside Europe or Africa, 1892 femur was found 15 yards away assumed from same individual

Zhoukoudian Cave

China, excavations in 20s and 30s revealed remains of 40 adults and children, Homo erectus, 780,000-400,00 ya, referred to as the Peking man, choppers found similar to Oldowan, retouched flakes fashioned into scrapers, points, burins, and awls, tools probably also made from perishable material like bamboo, control of fire

Nariokotome Boy

Also known as Turkana boy, discovered in 1984 by Kamoya Kimeu, Alan Walker and Richard Leaky in West Lake Turkana in Kariokotome Kenya, 1.6 mya, most complete Homo erectus specimen yet found, 8 years old, 5’3, cranial capacity 880 cm, brain growth nearly complete, lacked highly developed language center in brain

Homo erectus Pelvis

Female pelvis found in Gona Ethiopia in 2001 by Sileshi Semaw, 1.2 mya, 81 lbs, wide birth canal indicated H erectus newborns had brains almost as large as modern newborns

Homo ergaster

African variation of Homo erectus, not strongly buttressed at browridge and nuchal torus with thinner cranial bones, may be variation within the species or seperate species

Western Eurasia find

Dmanisi Republic of Georgia in 1990s and early 2000s, 1.8-1.7 mya, best preserved hominin remains this old found outside of Africa, 5ft, 600-780 cm cranial capacity, body proportions similar to H erectus, sloping forehead, wide base, sagittal keeling, thinner brow ridge, projecting lower face, relatively lare upper canines, one is toothless with bone remodeling showing that they were lost well before death, stone tools similar to Oldowan, implies that first hominins to leave Africa around 2 mya were probably smaller bodied early forms of H erectus carrying Oldowan tool culture

Norfolk England

Footprints of several indiciduals found in Happisburgh, 950,000 ya, possibly not H erectus

Ceprano Italy

900,000 -400,00 ya (possibly not H erectus)

Acheulian Tools

Mode 2, appeared in East Africa 1.5 mya, associated with Homo erectus/ergaster, raw materials for tools transported long distances, commonly obsidion, mostly found in Africa, Europe, Middle East, bi-face hand axe, larger but thinner than Oldowan, mor worked around the edges and on both sides, symmetrical teardrop shape, light enough to be portable, hard and soft hammar percussion, flakes worked into different shapes to be knives, scrapers, and chisels, choppers similar to advanced Oldowan core found in Eurasia and asia, progressive improvement in tool making over time from complex mental templates and increased reliance on tools, animal bones at H erectus sites suggest small game hunting and scavenging of larger animals

Hard Hammer Percusion

Striking a core or unfinished tool with a stone to remove flakes

Soft Hammer Percussion

Shaping an unfinished tool with pieces of hardwood, antler, or bone