Bio HL Unit one

Metabolism

All chemical reactions in a cell

Monomer

Smaller building block molecules

Polymers

Large molecules consisting of the same or similar building blocks

Anabolic

Synthesize large molecules from smaller ones, small —> big, uses ATP

Catabolic

Turns big molecules into smaller ones, releases ATP (creates ATP), big —> small

Monomers and polymers relationship with anabolic pathways

Many monomers —> polymers

Do anabolic pathways break or form bonds

Form

What is the reaction name in an anabolic pathway

Condensation reaction (removes water)

In anabolic pathways do they store or release energy

Store energy

Monomers and polymers relationship with catabolic pathways

polymer —> many monomers

Do catabolic pathways break or form bonds

Break down

What is the reaction name in a catabolic pathway

Hydrolysis (adds water)

In catabolic pathways do they store or release energy

Release

How do anabolic pathways assemble polymers?

1. Creation of monomers

2. Monomer activation (energy from ATP attaches to small units of monomer to make them reactive)

3. Dehydration synthesize (enzymes join the active units of monomers together and release a water molecule for each new bond formed.

1-3 repeats for polymerization

How do catabolic pathways disassemble polymers?

1. Water usage (a water molecule breaks into a hydrogen ion and a hydroxyl group)

2. Bond cleavage (these parts attach to the ends of seperating monomers)

3. Enzyme action (digestive or cellular enzymes target specific bonds between the building blocks)

Hydrolysis reaction

What is a carbohydrate

• An organic molecule with carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen in a 1:2:1 ratio

• A macro molecule that provides energy and structural support to all living organisms.

What ending is a clue that the molecule is a carbohydrate?

Ends in -ose.

What is a simple sugar?

Monosaccharide and disaccharides

What are complex carbs?

Polysaccharides

What are monosaccharides?

The simplest form of carbohydrates, fundamental building blocks (monomers) that combine to form more complex carbohydrates.

What are disaccharides?

They are carbohydrates formed when two monosaccharides join together through dehydration synthesis.

What are the functions of monosaccharides and disaccharides?

• Immediately broken down for energy

• Used to build polysaccharides

What are the functions of polysaccharides

• Energy storage

• Structural building material

What is pentose

A type of monosaccharide that contains five carbons

What is hexose

A monosaccharide that contains 6 carbons

What is the formula for glucose?

C6H12O6 (1:2:1)

What are the functions of glucose?

• Can be broken down to make ATP

• Energy for the cell during cellular respiration

• Can be building blocks to make polysaccharides

What is alpha glucose?

When the OH is BELOW the ring

What is beta glucose?

When the OH is ABOVE the ring

What is glucose?

6 carbon monosaccharide, simple sugar, serves as the primary energy source for cellular fuel for almost all living organisms.

What is electronegativity?

The “strength” that an atom pills on the shared electrons. (Tug-of-war)

What is a polar covalent bond?

If two atoms have different electronegativities it will be polar (non-even). These are the basis of the ability to form hydrogen bonds.

What is a non polar covalent bond?

If two atoms have approximatly the same electronegativity it will be non polar (even).

How does polarity relate to molecular charges?

If there is a polar covalent bond, one side will be slightly negative (the atom with the higher electronegativity) and one side will be slightly positive (the atom with the lower electronegativity)

Why is it important that glucose is polar?

• Dissolves easily in water

• Easily transported

• Polar dissolves polar

Why is it important that glucose is stable?

• Great material to build polysaccharides

• Starch, glycogen, and cellulose

Why is it important that glucose can be oxidized?

• It loses its electrons to become oxidized

• When done is a series of small steps the energy that is released during this process can be used to create ATP

• This process is called cellular respiration

What are other examples of hexose?

Galactose and fructose

What are other examples of pentose?

Ribose and deoxyribose

What is the covalent bond that likes monosaccharides together?

Glycosidic linkage

What are three disaccharides and what are they made of?

1. Sucrose (table sugar) = glucose + fructose

2. Lactose (sugar in milk) = glucose + galactose

3. maltose (sugar in malt) = glucose + glucose

What are two functions of polysaccharides and what polysaccharides fufills each function?

• Energy storage: starch and glycogen

• Structural material: cellulose and chitin

What is starch?

A polysaccharide that is found in plants, amylose (linear) and amylopectin (branched).

What is the monomer in starch?

Alpha glucose

What is a trait of starch?

Slightly insoluble

What is glycogen?

Energy storage polysaccharide which is found in animals.

What is the monomer for glycogen?

Alpha glucose

What is a trait of glycogen?

It is highly branch and the same as starch just found in animals.

What is cellulose?

A structural polysaccharides that is found in the cell walls of plants.

What is the monomer of cellulose?

Beta glucose.

What are some traits of cellulose?

It is linear, it forms bundles called microfibrals, humans can’t break the b-glucose linkages, it is insoluble fiber/undigestable.

What is chitin?

It is a structural polysaccharide that is found in the cell walls of fungi and the exoskeleton of arthropods.

What is the monomer of chitin?

Modified glucose

What are glycoproteins?

this is a sugar-protein molecule.

What are the functions of glycoproteins?

• Embedded in the cell membrane.

• Helps with cell to cell reception and communication.

• Serve as receptors for chemical signals.

• Structural support for cells.

What is an example of a glycoprotein?

ABO blood groups.

• The presence of specific glycoproteins are involved in determining the ABO blood typing system.

What is a lipid?

These are macro molecules that are a broad group of organic compounds including fats, oils, waxes, and steroids. These are all insoluble in water but soluble in organic solvents. Lipids are mostly made up of carbon and hydrogen atoms. Lipids serve jobs such as:

• Storing long term energy

• Forming cell membrane structure

• Serving as signaling molecules

What is hydrophobic?

Does not interact with water.

What is hydrophilic?

They like water and interact with it.

What are glycerols?

These are the main backbones for complex lipids such as triglycerides and phospholipids

What are the building blocks of fats and oils?

• Glycerol molecule

• 1, 2, or 3 fatty acid chains

What are triglycerides?

These are the most common type of lipid found in the human body and they are found in fats and oils.

What are triglycerides formed with?

Triglycerides have 3 fatty acid chains, 3 carbon alcohol, and each OH group = a location for fatty acids to attach to. (3 carbons, 3 fatty acids, and the OH groups to attach the fatty acids to the carbon).

How are triglycerides connected to glycerols?

They are connected through a condensation reaction. The type of bond that is created is an ester linkage.

What is a fatty acid?

These are long hydrocarbon chains that are attached to a carboxyl group (AKA carboxyl acid) - COOH.

What are saturated fatty acids?

These fatty acids contain all single bonds in a hydrocarbon chain.

What are unsaturated fatty acids?

These fatty acids contain one or more double bond in the hydrocarbon chain.

What are monounsaturated fatty acids?

These fatty acids contain one double bond in the hydrocarbon chain.

What are polyunsaturated fatty acids?

These are fatty acids that contain 2 or more double bonds in the hydrocarbon chain.

What are cis-unsaturated fatty acids?

These fatty acids have hydrogen atoms attached to the carbon double bond on the same side = creates a bend.

What are trans-unsaturated fatty acids?

These fatty acids have hydrogen atoms that are attached to the carbon double bond on different sides = no bend is created.

What state do trans-unsaturated fatty acids take at room temperature?

Tend to be solid at room temperature because fatty acids are able to fit together closer and tighter.

What are the properties of saturated fatty acids?

These fatty acids tend to be solid at room temperature, they come from mammals, and have a high melting point.

What are the properties of cis-unsaturated fatty acids?

These fatty acids tend to be liquid at room temperature, come from fish and plants, and have low melting points.

What are the functions of fats and oils?

• Long term storage.

• Insulation (ex: blubber).

• Protection/cushioning/support of internal organs.

What do animals use their fats for?

• Mammals store their fat in adipose tissue.

• Fats in adipose tissue can be broken down to provide the cell with ATP energy.

What do plants use their fats for?

Plants will use fats for long term energy storage.

What is a phospholipid?

These are a specialized lipid molecule that forms basic structural foundation of all cell membranes.

What is the function of a phospholipid?

They are the major component of the cell membrane in the form of a phospholipid bilayer.

What is a phospholipid bilayer?

These are two layer arrangements of phospholipid molecules that forms the structure of all biological cell membranes.

What are the components of a phospholipid?

• Glycerol.

• Two fatty acid tails.

• Head group with phosphate group.

What is amphipathic?

These are molecules that contain both water-attracting and water-repelling regions within the same structure.

What is the hydrophilic component of the phospholipid?

The head group.

What is the hydrophobic component of the phospholipid?

The fatty acids.

How are phospholipids oriented in the phospholipid bilayer?

• Major structural component of the cell membrane.

• Hydrophilic head on either side of the membrane (outside and inside).

• Hydrophilic tails in the middle (facing inwards).

(think sandwich).

Whats a steroid?

These are a type of biologically active lipids that are defined in their structure:

• Four carbon rings (3 - six ring carbons, 1 - five ring carbon)

• Sides fused together.

Whats the function of a steroid?

Steroids serve the function of being critical structural components of a cell membrane and as chemical messengers (hormones) that regulate the biological process.

What is cholesterol?

These are steroid lipids that are in all parts of the human body.

What is the function of cholesterol?

• Reduces the ability for how easily a liquid or gas can pass through the cell membrane by reducing fluidity at a higher temperature.

• Increases the permeability of the cell membrane by increasing fluidity at lower temperatures.

• Is modified into other steroids.

What is a steroid hormone and what are some examples?

• Steroid hormones are a class of hydrophobic hormone molecules that control a wide range of physiological functions.

• Estrogen and testosterone.

How do steroid hormones give the cell instructions?

Steroids are hydrophobic, so they can easily pass through the cell membrane and give instructions.

What are waxes?

Waxes are a diverse group of lipids that are generally long hydrocarbon chains.

• A long chain of fatty acids linked to a long-chain alcohol by an ester bond.

What are functions of waxes?

• They are “water proof” (AKA hydrophobic).

• Beeswax build honeycombs.

Why can waxes be used for water proofing?

They are non-polar so the repel water and from this they are as well hydrophobic.