Neuropsychology: Brain Functions and Disorders Overview

PET scans

Measuring metabolic activity and identifying areas of high/low brain function.

MRI

High-resolution images of brain structure.

fMRI

Brain activity based on blood oxygen levels.

EEG

Measuring electrical activity in the brain over time.

DTI

Imaging white matter tracts (connectivity between regions).

CT

Quick structural imaging using X-rays, often used in emergencies.

Goals of neuropsychological assessment

Diagnose disorders, plan treatment, assess brain function.

Anterior vs posterior

Anterior = front; Posterior = back.

Sagittal vs coronal vs axial views

Sagittal = side view; Coronal = front-to-back slices; Axial = top-down slices.

4 major steps of neurotransmission

1) Synthesis, 2) Release, 3) Receptor binding, 4) Inactivation.

Blood-brain barrier

Protects brain by blocking harmful substances.

Agonist vs antagonist

Agonist = mimics NT; Antagonist = blocks NT.

Role of dopamine in drug use

Reinforces reward and addiction pathways.

Role of CRF in drug use

Involved in stress response and relapse.

Depression neurotransmitter imbalance

Low serotonin, norepinephrine, dopamine.

Bipolar disorder treatment

Mood stabilizers like lithium.

Anxiety neurotransmitters

GABA, serotonin; treated with SSRIs, benzodiazepines.

Substance use disorders NTs

Dopamine, glutamate; treatments vary by substance.

Function of primary visual cortex (V1)

Processes basic visual information.

Dorsal pathway function

Spatial location and movement.

Ventral pathway function

Object and facial recognition.

Visual form agnosia

Inability to recognize objects despite intact vision.

Prosopagnosia

Face blindness—damage to fusiform face area.

Somatosensory cortex

Processing touch and body sensation.

Homunculus

Map of the body on the somatosensory cortex.

Optic ataxia

Poor visual guidance of movements.

Contralateral neglect

Ignoring one side of space/body.

Broca's aphasia

Non-fluent, effortful speech; good comprehension.

Wernicke's aphasia

Fluent but meaningless speech; poor comprehension.

Short-term memory vs long-term memory

STM = temporary storage; LTM = permanent storage.

Types of LTM

Implicit (procedural), episodic (events), emotional.

Hippocampus role in memory

Encoding and retrieval of new memories.

Korsakoff's syndrome cause

Thiamine deficiency, often due to alcoholism.

Prefrontal cortex role

Planning, decision-making, inhibition, social behavior.

Schizophrenia brain changes

Reduced frontal lobe activity, enlarged ventricles.

ADHD treatment

Stimulants (e.g., Ritalin); improve dopamine transmission.

Motor pathway parts

Motor cortex → brainstem → spinal cord → muscles.

Parkinson's symptoms

Tremor, rigidity, slow movement (hypokinesia).

Huntington's disease cause

Degeneration of basal ganglia (hyperkinetic movements).

Executive dysfunction symptoms

Poor planning, disinhibition, trouble organizing tasks.

Key limbic structures in emotion

Amygdala, hippocampus, cingulate cortex, orbitofrontal cortex.

Somatic marker hypothesis

Emotions guide decision-making via bodily signals.

Kluver-Bucy syndrome symptoms

Docility, hyperorality, visual agnosia, hypersexuality.

Frontal lobe role in social cognition

Interpreting others' behavior, planning social interactions.

Social changes after frontal lesions

Apathy, disinhibition, poor judgment, antisocial behavior.

Spectrum in ASD

Range and severity of symptoms.

Abnormal connectivity

A brain difference in ASD.

Amygdala differences

A brain difference in ASD.

Early brain overgrowth

A brain difference in ASD.

Central Nervous System (CNS)

Consists of the brain and spinal cord.

Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)

Consists of the somatic nervous system and autonomic nervous system.

Somatic nervous system

Part of the PNS responsible for voluntary control.

Autonomic nervous system

Part of the PNS responsible for involuntary control.

Sympathetic nervous system

Division of the autonomic nervous system responsible for the fight or flight response.

Parasympathetic nervous system

Division of the autonomic nervous system responsible for rest and digest.

Action potential

Involves resting potential, depolarization (Na+ in), repolarization (K+ out), and return to resting.

Neurotransmitter activating systems

Neural systems organized around specific neurotransmitters such as dopamine, serotonin, acetylcholine, and norepinephrine.

Activating systems origin

Originate from small brainstem nuclei that project widely throughout the brain.

V2

Relays visual information to higher-order areas.

V3

Responsible for form and motion.

V4

Responsible for color and form.

V5 (MT)

Responsible for motion perception.

Retinotopy

The mapping of visual input from the retina to neurons in the visual cortex.

Visual field

The whole area you can see.

Receptive field

The area a specific neuron responds to.

Scotoma

A blind spot in vision caused by damage to the visual cortex.

Hemianopia

Loss of vision in one-half of the visual field of both eyes.

Blindsight

Ability to respond to visual stimuli without conscious awareness, due to V1 damage.

Aphantasia

Inability to form mental images.

Balint syndrome

Caused by bilateral parietal damage; includes optic ataxia, oculomotor apraxia, and simultanagnosia.

Astereognosis

Inability to recognize objects by touch.

Asomatognosia

Loss of awareness of part of one's body.

Finger agnosia

Inability to identify or distinguish one's own fingers.

Numb touch

Inability to consciously perceive touch but able to perform tasks involving touch.

Amygdala (memory)

Important for emotional memory.

Prefrontal cortex (memory)

Important for working memory and temporal order.

Cerebellum (memory)

Important for procedural memory.

Temporal cortex (memory)

Important for autobiographical memory.

Systems consolidation theory

Memory initially depends on hippocampus, but becomes independent over time.

Multiple trace theory

Each retrieval of a memory creates a new trace in the hippocampus.

Reconsolidation theory

Retrieved memories enter a labile state and must be re-stored, possibly altered.

Transient global amnesia

Sudden, temporary loss of memory, especially for recent events, lasting several hours.

Alzheimer's disease symptoms

Memory loss, confusion, difficulty with language, and impaired reasoning; related to plaques and tangles.

Executive function tests

Wisconsin Card Sorting Test, Stroop Task, Tower of London.

Loss of divergent thinking

Inability to generate multiple solutions or ideas.

Frontal lobe damage behavior

Poor impulse control, social inappropriateness, lack of planning.

Amygdala role in emotion

Fear conditioning in animals and humans shows amygdala activation.

Orbitofrontal cortex involvement in emotion

Damage leads to poor decision-making and inappropriate emotional responses.

Basic motor pathway

Motor cortex → brainstem → spinal cord → muscles (via corticospinal tract).

Mirror neurons role

Activate both during observation and execution of object-directed movement.