Ap psych

Microsystem

Your closest relationships—like your family, friends, and school. You interact directly with this group every day.

Mesosystem

How the parts of your microsystem connect. Example: how your parents talk to your teachers.

Exosystem

Places that affect you but you’re not directly in. Example: your parent’s job or the local government.

Macrosystem

The big-picture stuff like culture, values, laws, and traditions that shape your life.

Chronosystem

Time-based changes—like growing up during a pandemic or going through a family move.

Priming

When something you see or experience gets your brain ready to think a certain way, even if you don’t notice it.

Sensorimotor Stage (0–2 years)

Babies learn by touching and moving. No object permanence yet; if a toy is hidden, it’s 'gone'. Also, stranger anxiety begins.

Preoperational Stage (2–6/7 years)

Kids start using words/images but can’t yet do mental operations. They are egocentric and don’t yet understand conservation.

Concrete Operational Stage (7–12 years)

Start understanding logic, conservation, and math. Can mentally reverse operations.

Formal Operational Stage (12+ years)

Begin abstract thinking, moral reasoning, and thinking about hypothetical situations.

Theory of Mind

Understanding that others have their own thoughts and feelings.

Scaffold

Temporary support from adults to help kids reach higher thinking.

Imprinting

A strong, early bond, such as baby ducks following the first thing they see.

Trust vs. Mistrust (0–1 yr)

If care is reliable, baby learns to trust.

Autonomy vs. Shame/Doubt (1–3 yrs)

Kids want to do things by themselves. Encouragement builds confidence.

Initiative vs. Guilt (3–6 yrs)

Kids plan activities. If scolded, they feel guilty for trying.

Competence vs. Inferiority (6–puberty)

Kids learn skills or feel like they can’t succeed.

Identity vs. Role Confusion (teen–20s)

Figuring out who you are.

Intimacy vs. Isolation (20s–40s)

Finding close relationships or feeling alone.

Generativity vs. Stagnation (40s–60s)

Making a difference in family/work or feeling stuck.

Integrity vs. Despair (60s+)

Looking back with pride or regret.

Unconditioned Stimulus (US)

Naturally causes a reaction (e.g., food makes a dog drool).

Neutral Stimulus (NS)

Doesn’t cause a reaction on its own (like a bell before training).

Unconditioned Response (UR)

The natural reaction (like drooling to food).

Conditioned Stimulus (CS)

The neutral stimulus after it's been paired with the unconditioned stimulus.

Conditioned Response (CR)

The learned reaction (drooling to bell).

Fixed Ratio

Reinforcement after a set number of responses (e.g., every 5th time).

Fixed Interval

Reinforcement after a set amount of time (e.g., every 5 minutes).

Variable Ratio

Reinforcement after an unpredictable number of responses (e.g., slot machines).

Variable Interval

Reinforcement after an unpredictable amount of time.

Insight Learning

A sudden 'aha!' moment when solving a problem.

Repression

Hiding painful memories.

Denial

Refusing to believe reality.

Projection

Blaming others for your feelings.

Displacement

Taking out feelings on someone less threatening.

Rationalization

Making excuses for bad behavior.

Sublimation

Turning bad feelings into good actions, like art or exercise.

Reaction Formation

Doing the opposite of what you feel.

Regression

Acting like a younger child when stressed.

Fundamental Attribution Error (FAE)

We blame others’ behavior on their personality and ignore the situation.

Foot-in-the-Door Phenomenon

If someone agrees to a small request, they’re more likely to agree to a bigger one later.

Cognitive Dissonance

Feeling uncomfortable when your actions don’t match your beliefs and changing one to fix it.

Role

A set of expectations about how people should behave in a social position.

Conformity

Changing behavior to match the group, even if you don’t agree.

Obedience

Following orders from an authority figure.

Social Facilitation

You perform better at easy tasks when others are watching.

Social Loafing

You put in less effort when you're in a group than when alone.

Deindividuation

Losing your sense of self in a group, which can lead to acting out of character.

Group Polarization

Group discussions make people’s views more extreme.

Groupthink

Group members try to maintain harmony, so they ignore alternatives or critical thinking.

Prejudice

Unjustified attitude toward a group.

Discrimination

Unjustified action toward a group.

Just-World Phenomenon

Believing the world is fair, so people 'get what they deserve.'

Ingroup Bias

Favoring your own group over others.

Scapegoat Theory

Blaming others (usually weaker groups) when things go wrong.

Mere Exposure Effect

We tend to like things more the more we see them.

Bystander Effect

People are less likely to help when others are around.

Diffusion of Responsibility

More people around leads to less personal responsibility felt to act.

Social Exchange Theory

We help others if the rewards outweigh the costs.

Reciprocity Norm

We feel we should help someone if they’ve helped us.

Social-Responsibility Norm

We should help people who need help, even if there's no benefit for us.