AP Psych Unit 6 Learning

Flashcards about Learning and Conditioning based on lecture notes.

Learning

The process of acquiring new and relatively enduring information or behaviors. Example: A student learning to solve algebraic equations.

Habituation

An organism's decreasing response to a stimulus with repeated exposure to it. Example: Not noticing the sound of a train after living near the tracks for a while.

Associative

Learning that certain events occur together; events may be two stimuli (as in classical conditioning) or a response and its consequence (as in operant conditioning). Example: A dog learning that a leash means a walk.

Stimulus

Any event or situation that evokes a response. Example: A loud noise causing a startle response.

Cognitive

The acquisition of mental information, whether by observing events, by watching others, or through language. Example: Learning the rules of a game by reading the instructions.

Classical

A type of learning in which one learns to link two or more stimuli and anticipate events. Example: Pavlov's dogs salivating at the sound of a bell.

Behaviorism

The view that psychology should be an objective science that studies behavior without reference to mental processes. Example: Studying how rewards influence behavior.

Neutral

In classical conditioning, a stimulus that elicits no response before conditioning. Example: A bell before it is associated with food.

UnconditionedResponse

In classical conditioning, an unlearned, naturally occurring response to the unconditioned stimulus (US), such as salivation when food is in the mouth. Example: Blinking when air is blown into eyes.

UnconditionedStimulus

In classical conditioning, a stimulus that unconditionally triggers a response (UR). Example: Food in the mouth triggering salivation.

ConditionedResponse

In classical conditioning, a learned response to a previously neutral stimulus (CS). Example: Salivating at the sound of a bell after it has been associated with food.

ConditionedStimulus

In classical conditioning, an originally irrelevant stimulus that, after association with an unconditioned stimulus (US), comes to trigger a conditioned response (CR). Example: A bell that triggers salivation after being associated with food.

Acquisition

In classical conditioning, the initial stage, when one links a neutral stimulus and an unconditioned stimulus so that the neutral stimulus begins triggering the conditioned response; in operant conditioning, the strengthening of a reinforced response. Example: Learning to associate a tone with a shock.

Higher-Order

A procedure in which the conditioned stimulus in one conditioning experience is paired with a new neutral stimulus, creating a second conditioned stimulus. Example: An animal that has learned that a tone predicts food might then learn that a light predicts the tone and begin responding to the light alone.

Extinction

The diminishing of a conditioned response; occurs in classical conditioning when an unconditioned stimulus (US) does not follow a conditioned stimulus (CS); occurs in operant conditioning when a response is no longer reinforced. Example: The bell no longer causes the dog to salivate because it is no longer presented with food afterwards.

SpontaneousRecovery

The reappearance, after a pause, of an extinguished conditioned response. Example: Suddenly salivating to the bell sound again after a period of no response.

Generalization

The tendency, once a response has been conditioned, for stimuli similar to the conditioned stimulus to elicit similar responses. Example: Being afraid of all dogs because you were bitten by one dog.

Discrimination

In classical conditioning, the learned ability to distinguish between a conditioned stimulus and stimuli that do not signal an unconditioned stimulus. Example: Only fearing the specific dog that bit you, not all dogs.

Operant

A type of learning in which behavior is strengthened if followed by a reinforcer or diminished if followed by a punisher. Example: Learning to study to get good grades.

Law

Thorndike’s principle that behaviors followed by favorable consequences become more likely, and that behaviors followed by unfavorable consequences become less likely. Example: A cat learning to press a lever to escape a puzzle box.

OperantChamber

In operant conditioning research, a chamber containing a bar or key that an animal can manipulate to obtain a food or water reinforcer; attached devices record the animal’s rate of bar pressing or key pecking. Example: A rat pressing a bar to get food.

Reinforcement

In operant conditioning, any event that strengthens the behavior it follows. Example: Getting a treat for doing a trick.

Shaping

An operant conditioning procedure in which reinforcers guide behavior toward closer and closer approximations of the desired behavior. Example: Rewarding a child for saying 'ba,' then 'baba,' then 'bottle.'

DiscriminativeStimulus

In operant conditioning, a stimulus that elicits a response after association with reinforcement. Example: A dog sitting when it hears the command 'sit.'

PositiveReinforcement

Increasing behaviors by presenting positive reinforcers; a positive reinforcer is any stimulus that, when presented after a response, strengthens the response. Example: Giving a dog a treat for sitting.

NegativeReinforcement

Increases behaviors by stopping or reducing negative stimuli; a negative reinforcer is any stimulus that, when removed after a response, strengthens the response. Example: Taking pain killers to get rid of a headache.

PrimaryReinforcer

An innately reinforcing stimulus, such as one that satisfies a biological need. Example: Food or water.

ConditionedReinforcer

A stimulus that gains its reinforcing power through its association with a primary reinforcer; also known as a secondary reinforcer. Example: Money.

ReinforcementSchedule

A pattern that defines how often a desired response will be reinforced. Example: Reinforcing behavior every time it occurs, or only sometimes.

ContinuousReinforcement

Reinforcing the desired response every time it occurs. Example: Giving a treat every time a dog sits.

PartialReinforcement

Reinforcing a response only part of the time; results in slower acquisition of a response but much greater resistance to extinction than does continuous reinforcement. Example: Only sometimes giving a treat when a dog sits.

Fixed-Ratio

In operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response only after a specific number of responses. Example: Getting a free coffee after buying 10 coffees.

Variable-Ratio

In operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response after an unpredictable number of responses. Example: Gambling or lottery.

Fixed-Interval

In operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response only after a specific time has elapsed. Example: Getting a paycheck every two weeks.

Variable-Interval

In operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response at unpredictable time intervals. Example: Checking email and sometimes finding an important message.

Punishment

An event that tends to decrease the behavior that it follows. Example: Getting a speeding ticket.

Biofeedback

A system for electronically recording, amplifying, and feeding back information regarding a subtle physiological state, such as blood pressure or muscle tension. Example: Using sensors to learn to control heart rate.

Respondent

Behavior that occurs as an automatic response to some stimulus. Example: Salivating when seeing food.

OperantBehavior

Behavior that operates on the environment, producing consequences. Example: Studying to get a good grade.

CognitiveMap

A mental representation of the layout of one’s environment. Example: Remembering how to get around your house, even in the dark.

Latent

Learning that occurs but is not apparent until there is an incentive to demonstrate it. Example: Knowing the route to school but only demonstrating it when offering a ride to a friend.

Insight

A sudden realization of a problem's solution. Example: Suddenly understanding how to solve a puzzle.

Intrinsic

A desire to perform a behavior effectively for its own sake. Example: Reading because you enjoy reading.

Extrinsic

A desire to perform a behavior to receive promised rewards or avoid threatened punishment. Example: Studying to get a good grade.

Coping

Alleviating stress using emotional, cognitive, or behavioral methods. Example: Exercising to reduce stress.

Problem-Focused

Attempting to alleviate stress directly – by changing the stressor or the way we interact with that stressor. Example: Creating a study schedule to manage workload.

Emotion-Focused

Attempting to alleviate stress by avoiding or ignoring a stressor and attending to emotional needs related to one’s stress reaction. Example: Watching a movie to distract from worries.

LearnedHelplessness

The helplessness and passive resignation an animal or human learns when unable to avoid repeated aversive events. Example: Giving up after failing repeatedly.

ExternalLocus

The perception that chance or outside forces beyond our personal control determine our fate. Example: Believing that success is all about luck.

InternalLocus

The perception that you control your own fate. Example: Believing that hard work leads to success.

Self-Control

The ability to control impulses and delay short-term gratification for greater long-term rewards. Example: Resisting eating a cookie when trying to lose weight.

Observational

Learning by observing others; also called social learning. Example: Learning to cook by watching a cooking show.

Modeling

The process of observing and imitating a specific behavior. Example: Learning dance by watching and copying a dancer.

Mirror

Frontal lobe neurons that some scientists believe fire when performing certain actions or when observing another doing so; the brain’s mirroring of another’s action may enable imitation and empathy. Example: Imitating someone's facial expression.

Prosocial

Positive, constructive, helpful behavior; the opposite of antisocial behavior. Example: Volunteering to help others.