Atoms, Enzymes and Energy, and Cell Respiration & Metabolism

atomic mass

sum of the proton and neutrons in an atom is equal to the ____ of the atom

atomic number

the number of protons in an atom is given as this number

isotopes

element with the same number of protons as the atomic number but diff number of neutrons

covalent bonds

bond in which one or more pairs of electrons are shared by 2 atoms

ionic bonds

bond in which one or more electrons from one atom are removed and attatched to another atom = pos and neg ions which attract each other

true

true or false: hydrogen bonding exist (lol)

acids

ionic compounds that break apart in water to form a hydrogen ion

• more H+ the stronger it is

• tastes sour

• react strongly with metals

Base

ionic compounds that break apart to form a neg charged hydroxide ion in water

• greater the concentration of OH- ions the stronger it is

• taste bitter

• feels slippery

neutralization reactions

when acids and bases are added together, they react to neutralize each other if an equal number of hydrogen and hydroxide ions are present

any pH number less than 7

• 0 is the strongest acid

what is the pH of an acid

any pH number greater than 7

• 14 is the strongest base

what is the pH of a base

autosomal recessive trait that affects the way the sugar galactose is broken down due to the lack of the enzyme galactose-1-phosphate uridyl transferase

Galactosemia

• swollen and inflamed liver

• kidney failure

• ovarian failure

• mental growth

• cataracts

treatment: restrict galactose and lactose from the diet

what are the symptoms of galactose building up and becoming toxic? and the treatment?

1. binding; transport and storage of small molecules

2. molecular switching; conformational changes in response to pH or ligand binding used to control cellular processes

3. coordinated motion; contraction is mediated by the sliding motion of 2 protein filaments— actin and myosin

4. structural support; collagen

5. immune protection; anitbodies

6. generation and transmission of nerve impulses; from one nerve cell to another

7. control of growth and differentiation; growth, cell differentiation and expression for DNA

functions of proteins

marasmus

a form of severe protein energy malnutrition characterized by energy deficiency

• dry loose skin folds handing over the gluti

• drastic loss of adipose tissue from normal area of fat deposits

• fretful, irritable, and voraciosuly hungry

• bands of pigmented and depigmented hair

• flaky paint appareance of skin due to peeling

atherosclerosis

obstruction of the blood vessels due to the accumulation of cholesterol and lipids → accelerated plaque formation = vasculopathy

• narrows arteries = destroys walls → rupture of blood vessels

• acetoacetate

• beta-hydroxybutyrate

• acetone

name the 3 acids of a ketone body

ketoacidosis

build up of too many ketone bodies in the blood

No insulin → glucose can't enter cells → cells starve → body thinks it’s starving → breaks down fat into fatty acids → liver turns them into ketone bodies → too many in the blood = ketoacidosis

how do ketones accumlate in the body for Type I DM?

• thirst (polydeopsia)

• polyuria (frequenct urination)

• hyperglycemia

• vasculopathy

• renal failure

• HTN

• neuropathy

• nephropathy

• dehydration

• nausea

• vomiting

• heavy breathing

• dilation of pupils

• confusion

• fruity breath

• coma

• death

symptoms for ketoacidosis

insulin and intravenous fluids

• cannot be given orally bc pepsin of stomach can destroy the insulin

treament for ketoacidosis

true

• gonads and adrenal cortex

true of false: the body uses cholesterol to make steroid hormones

• enzymes bind to substrates at their active site → forming an enzyme-substrate complex = the enzyme changes shape slightly (induced fit) to fit the substrate better.

• It lowers activation energy and helps convert the substrate into products → the product is released → the enzyme returns to its original shape, and is reused.

What is the mechanism of enzyme action?

increased temp and pH = increase rate of non-enzyme-catalyzed reactions

• temp at 0 degrees C = reaction rate is slow

  • speeds up as temp is raise above 0 degrees

effect of temp and pH on enzyme action

accelerates the enzymatic reaction

• inorganic metal ions

what are cofactors?

true

true or false: in enzymes wiht a cofactor requirment the attachment of cofactors causes a conformational change in the protein that allow it to combine w/ its substrate

• organic molecules derived from water soluble vitamins

• transporting H atoms and small molecules from one enzyme to another

what is coenzymes?

reduction

when a molecule gains an electron =

oxidized

when a molecule loses an electron =

prostaglandins

member of a group of lipid compounds that are derived enzymatically from fatty acids

• vasorelaxtor or vasoconstrictor of smooth muscle cells

• sensitize spinal neurons to pain

• regulate inflammatory mediation

• regulate calcium movement

• regulate hormone regulation

• relaxes cervix for birth

• erectile dysfunction

true

true or false: pt has erectile dysfunction and depression, so you should check nitric oxide and prostaglandins because they are important for erections and vastorelaxators

metabolism

all of the reactions in the body that involve energy transformation

• the complete set of chemical reactions that occur in living cells

• one chemical is transformed into another

catabolism

breakdown of larger organic molecules into smaller molecules

• ex: breaks down glucose, fatty acids, and amino acids for the synthesis of ATP

anabolism

reactions require the input of energy and include the synthesis of large energy-storage molecules

• glycogen, fat, and protein

aerobic cell respiration

uptaking oxygen molecule and releasing CO2 during the production of ATP

• produces ATP via NADH

glycolysis

______ is the process of breaking down one molecule of glucose (C₆H₁₂O₆) into two molecules of pyruvate (C₃H₄O₃)

• producing a small amount of energy (ATP) and NADH in the process.

Glucose + 2 NAD⁺ + 2 ADP + 2 Pi → 2 Pyruvate + 2 NADH + 2 ATP

what is the formula for glycolysis?

NAD: nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide

function: key role as a carrier of electrons in the transfer of reduction potential

What is NAD and it’s function?

FAD: flavin adenine dinucleotide

function: it’s a coenzyme that accepts electrons during cellular respiration = FADH₂ → donates these electrons to the electron transport chain to help produce ATP

What does FAD stand for and what is its function?

lactic acid

muscles need oxygen and the cells cannot produce atp quick enough so pyruvic acid is converted into ___

anaerobic respiration

the metabolic pathway by which glucose is broken down without oxygen, producing energy (ATP)

anaerobic respiration

the process where glucose is broken down without oxygen, producing ATP and waste products like lactic acid (in muscles) or ethanol and CO₂

• relies on fermentation to regenerate NAD⁺ for glycolysis

fermentation

the process of energy production in a cell under anaerobic conditon

ischemia

refers to inadequate blood flow to an organ

• rate of oxygen delivery is insufficent to maintain aerobic respiration

Glycogenesis

Making glycogen (a stored form of glucose) from glucose.

• location: Mainly in the liver and muscle cells.

Glycogenolysis

Breaking down glycogen into glucose when the body needs energy.

• location: Mainly in the liver and skeletal muscle cells.

Gluconeogenesis

Making new glucose from non-carbohydrate sources like proteins and fats.

• location: Mainly in the liver and a little in the kidneys.

liver releases glucose again into the muscle cell for ATP

when you go to the gym → muscles release lactic acid → lactic acid is transported by blood to the liver → liver uptakes the lactic acid → converts acid into glucose =

the cycle between muscle and liver

Cori cycle location

• outer membrane

• inner membrane

• intermembrane space

• matrix

• crista: contains the electron transport chain

list the structure of the mitcohondria

1. NAD & FAD bring electrons and protons to the cristae

2. electrons passed to proton pumps and electron acceptors in the cristae

3. electrons provide energy → proton pumps pump H+ from matrix to the outer compartment

4. the concentration of H+ increases in coutercompartment → H+ comes back into the matrix

5. H+ passes back thru the ATP synthage channel where ADP + phosphate is combined to form ATP

6. electrons, H⁺, and oxygen combine to form water (H₂O).

steps of the electron transport chain

chemiosmosis

the movement of H⁺ ions across a membrane (from high to low concentration) through ATP synthase

• that energy is used to make ATP

glucose and ketone bodies

where does blood derive it’s energy from?

blood glucose

where does the brain derive it’s energy from?

true

true or false: when fasting the blood glucose is supplied by the liver

Parkinson’s disease due to low dopamine from brain stem

25 y/o M w/ a PMHx of a speech disorder. depression, sleep disorder, hand movement disorder, and walking/motor disorder

defiency of dopamine in pre-frontal lobe

Pt presents w/ social behavior and problem solving disorder after car accident

hyperprolactinemia

deficiency of dopamine from hypothalmus

prolactin

sex

low dopamine = high ____ and suppresses _____ hormone

emotional and sexual behavior

what does prolactin control in males

mammary glands and suppresses the sex hormones during pregnancy

what does prolactin control in women

polyuria

glucose in urine leads to ____

type II DM

• receptor of insulin has become resistant to the insulin hromone

• treatment increases obesity risk and cannot eat carbs or sugar