Native American societies before European contact

What food sources did Native Americans in the West rely on?

Hunting, gathering, and fishing, especially along the Columbia and Colorado rivers.

Why did some Native Americans in the West form sedentary villages?

The region provided ample food and trading goods, making permanent settlement possible.

Why can't the cultural practices of Western Indigenous people be generalized?

The region was highly diverse in climate and resources, with over 100 tribes in California alone.

Who lived in the Great Basin and what did they rely on for food?

The Mono, Paiute, Bannock, Shoshone, Ute, and Gosiute people hunted, gathered, and fished.

What was a key food in the Californian Native American diet?

Acorns, which were processed to remove toxins and made into flour.

What tools and methods were used for fishing in the Columbia and Colorado Rivers?

Harpoons and complex trapping systems.

What structures were used by nomadic California tribes like the Acjachemen?

Wikiups — easy-to-move shelters made of wood, leaves, and brush.

What structure of shelter indicated a reliable food source?

Permanent dwellings were more common where fish and acorns were plentiful.

What was the Dalles?

A trade hub on the Columbia River that connected the West to the Plains and Pacific.

How did the Chinookan people use slavery?

For heavy-labor tasks like processing bison.

What was a "tribelet"?

A small family-based band of 10–12 people aligned culturally within a tribe of a few hundred to a thousand.

How were hunting and gathering linked to religion?

Many groups performed spiritual rituals for success in hunting and food gathering.

What spiritual practice did Sahaptin-speaking people perform related to salmon?

They threw salmon bones back into the river to rejuvenate the population.

Which groups are considered the Ancestral Pueblos?

The Anasazi, Mogollon, and Hohokam.

When did the Ancestral Pueblos begin farming?

Around 2000 BCE.

Where did the Anasazi, Mogollon, and Hohokam live?

Anasazi: Four Corners; Mogollon: southwestern New Mexico; Hohokam: southern Arizona.

What crops did the Ancestral Pueblos grow?

Corn, beans, and squash.

What major irrigation system did the Hohokam build by 800 CE?

One of the largest canal systems, stretching through much of modern-day Arizona.

What did irrigation systems allow the Ancestral Pueblos to do?

Grow multiple crops and store surpluses in ceramic pots and woven baskets.

What food practice did the Navajo and Apache continue?

Hunting and gathering.

What was Chaco Canyon known for?

Being a trade hub and home to over 12,000 people with over 400 miles of roads.

What did the Chacoans trade?

Turquoise for seashells, exotic birds, and minerals from distant regions.

What kind of homes did the Ancestral Pueblos live in?

Stone and adobe buildings with multiple stories and rooms.

What caused the Ancestral Pueblos to abandon their homes around 1300 CE?

Likely drought and crop failures.

What are hogans?

Navajo round homes made from mud and bark, usually east-facing.

How did agriculture affect religious practices in the Southwest?

Disasters like droughts led to ceremonies praying for harvests and good weather.

What was the social structure of the Ancestral Pueblos?

Extended families farmed together; men and women both helped with agriculture.

What was the Hopewellian period?

A period (200 BCE–500 CE) when Native Americans shifted from foraging to agriculture.

What was “three-sister” farming?

The practice of planting squash, beans, and corn together for mutual support.

Which group coined the term "three sisters"?

The Iroquois.

What did the Iroquois League aim to achieve?

An end to intertribal violence and a united policy for diplomacy and trade.

How was Iroquois political structure similar to the U.S.?

It had a balance between local autonomy and federal unity.

What role did men and women play in Northeast societies?

Men farmed and hunted; women managed the household and processed food.

What type of homes did Northeastern Native Americans live in?

Longhouses (Iroquois) and wigwams (Algonquians).

What were Hopewellian mounds used for?

Likely ceremonial and burial purposes.

Who were the Five Civilized Tribes?

Cherokee, Choctaw, Chickasaw, Creek, and Seminole.

What was the Mississippian culture?

A mound-building culture from around 1000 CE, with complex urban centers.

What was the largest Mississippian city?

Cahokia, with a population of around 40,000 people.

What was Monk’s Mound?

The largest pre-contact earthwork in North America, located in Cahokia.

What farming practices did Southeastern Natives use?

Slash-and-burn to renew fields and grow beans, squash, corn, and sunflowers.

What did Mississippians trade at Poverty Point?

Stone and clay items for flint and soapstone.

What structures did Seminoles live in?

Chickees — open-sided, thatched-roof buildings.

What caused social stratification in the Southeast?

Agricultural surpluses concentrated wealth and power among elites.

What was the religious use of mounds in the Southeast?

Ceremonies worshipping natural features like the sun, corn, and water.

When did Plains Native Americans begin farming corn?

Around 900 CE, as agriculture spread from the Southwest.

What happened after the drought in the 1300s on the Plains?

Groups shifted back to hunting and gathering.

What are Clovis points?

Sharp stone spear tips used to hunt large animals like mammoths.

What did the introduction of horses do to Plains culture?

Increased nomadism and hunting competition; made societies less equal.

What were bull boats?

Small boats made from bison hide stretched over wood, used for river trade.

What is a teepee and why was it used?

A portable, conical tent made from buffalo hide — ideal for nomadic hunting.

What is an earth lodge?

A permanent, sod-covered structure used in more agrarian communities.

What was the social structure of Plains bands?

Small, fluid groups of 10–100s of people with little formal political structure.

What religious practices were common on the Plains?

Sun rituals like the Cheyenne Sun Dance and buffalo worship.

How did horses influence Plains warfare?

Tribes stole horses for power and wealth, leading to increased intertribal conflict.