Comprehensive Overview of Human Anatomy and Physiology

Skeleton

The skeleton is composed of 206 bones and functions to form a framework of the body, protect vital organs, and work with a muscular system to produce movements.

Axial Skeleton

The axial skeleton consists of the skull, 6 main cranial bones (Frontal, occipital, parietal, temporal), 24 bones of the face, the spinal column, ribs, and sternum.

Spinal Column

The spinal column has 26 vertebrae divided into five regions: cervical, thoracics, lumbar, sacrum, and coccyx.

Appendicular Skeleton

The appendicular skeleton consists of arm bones, leg bones, shoulder girdle, pelvis, two pelvic bones (pubis and ischium), which is formed of three fused bones, and the ilium, which is a large flared upper bone.

Lefort Fracture

A Lefort fracture is classified into three types: Lefort #1 horizontal (Maxillary, upper dental row), Lefort #2 pyramidal (Mid maxilla, inferior orbital rim), and Lefort #3 transverse (Upper maxilla zygomatic arch).

Osteoblasts

Cells that produce bone.

Osteocytes

Mature bone cells.

Osteoclasts

Cells involved in the breakdown of bone tissue.

Respiration (in bone context)

The process of destroying bone for absorption into circulation.

Diaphysis

The shaft of compact bone tissue, with yellow bone marrow located inside the medullary cavity.

Epiphysis

The ends of spongy bone tissue, containing red bone marrow and covered by a thin layer of cartilage.

Metaphysis

The region between diaphysis and epiphysis, containing the epiphyseal plate (growth region).

Periosteum

A thin layer of fibrous tissue covering the outside of bone, nourishing and protecting bone, and generating new bone cells for growth and repair.

Joints

Known as articulations, classified by the amount of movement they allow.

Suture

An immovable joint held together by fibrous connective tissue.

Symphysis

A slightly movable joint connected by fibrous cartilage.

Synovial Joints

Freely movable joints that allow for a wide range of movements, containing synovial fluid for cushioning and lubrication.

Osteomyelitis

Inflammation of bone caused by pus forming bacteria.

Tuberculosis

A contagious bacterial infection in the lungs may spread to bone, especially long bones and wrist, ankle bone; in the spine, it is called Pott disease.

Fractures

A break in bones usually caused by trauma; effects depend on location and severity.

Closed Fracture

A fracture where the skin is not broken.

Open Fracture

A fracture accompanied by a skin wound.

Fracture Treatment

Involves reduction of fracture; realignment of broken bone, with closed requiring no surgery and open requiring surgery for proper positioning.

Osteoporosis

A condition characterized by loss of bone mass, weakening the bone, and is most susceptible for women over 50.

DEXA Scan

A method used to diagnose and monitor osteoporosis, which stands for dual energy x-ray absorptiometry for bone density.

Osteomalacia

Softening of bone tissue, possibly caused by deficiency of vitamin D, renal disorders, liver disease, or certain intestinal disorders.

Paget Disease

A disorder of aging characterized by bone overgrowth and thickening, usually involving bones of the axial skeleton.

Osteogenic Sarcoma

A highly malignant tumor that most commonly occurs in growing regions and often requires amputation.

Chondrosarcoma

A cartilage tumor that may require amputation.

Osteoarthritis

The most common form of joint inflammation, characterized by joint cavity narrowing, bone thickening, and cartilage cracking.

Rheumatoid Arthritis

A systemic inflammatory disease of joints, involving immunologic reactions and leading to joint swelling and degeneration of bone.

Ankylosing spondylitis

Disease of spine mainly in males causes joint cartilages to be destroyed. Eventually disks between vertebrae classify and bones fuse.

Herniated Disk

Central mass of intervertebral disk protrudes into spinal column. Commonly occurs in the lumbosacral region and cervical regions. Results from injury or heavy lifting and severe cases may require discectomy.

Gout

Increased uric acid in blood causes salt deposits in joints. Results from metabolic disturbances. Secondary effect of another disease. Treatment involves drugs, suppresses formation of uric acid, and increases elimination of uric acid.

Polymyositis

Inflammation of skeletal muscle (Dysphagia and cardiac problems). Cause unknown (may be related to viral infection or autoimmunity). Often associated with other systemic diseases (rheumatoid arthritis, lupus erythematosus). If skin involved it is known as dermatomyositis. Symptoms include; erythema, dermatitis, lilac-colored rash. Diagnosis; enzyme studies, EMG, Muscle biopsy.

Fibromyalgia Syndrome

Widespread muscle aches, tenderness, stiffness, fatigue, sleep disorders, difficult to diagnose, treatment; exercise program, and pain relievers and muscle relaxants and antidepressants.

Chronic Fatigue Syndrome

Patients fatigue of no known cause. Associated with: Impaired memory, sore throat, painful lymph nodes, muscle and joint pain, headaches, sleep problems, immune disorders. Often occurs after viral infections and no consistent successful treatments.

Myasthenia Gravis

Acquired autoimmune disease. Antibodies interfere with muscle stimulation at neuromuscular junctions. Progressive loss of muscle power especially in the external eye and other facial muscles.

Muscular Dystrophy

Group of hereditary disease most common in Duchene muscular dystrophy. Progressive, non-inflammatory degeneration of muscles. Muscle tissue weakens and wastes away and gradually replaced with connective tissue and fat. May coexist with cardiomyopathy and mental impairment.

Smooth muscles

Walls of hollow organs and ducts and operate involuntarily.

Cardiac muscles

Myocardium of the heart wall and operate involuntarily. Responsible for pumping the heart.

Skeletal muscles

Attach to bone and operate voluntarily. Maintains posture and generates large portions of body heat.

Peristalsis

Waves of circular contraction and relaxation that propels contents onward.

Myocardium

Myo = muscle, Cardio = heart.

Muscle Contraction

Skeletal muscles are stimulated by motor neurons of the nervous system which causes acetylcholine to be released. It prompts contracts and requires actin and myosin to interact. ATP and calcium is needed for this response and partial contraction = tonus.

Muscle Action

Muscles work in Pairs at joints to produce movement.

Prime mover

Contraction.

Antagonist

Relaxation.

Point of origin

Muscle attachment point to the stable part of the skeleton.

Point of insertion

Muscle attachment point to the moving part of the skeleton.

Naming of Muscles

Location, direction of fibres, size, shape, and number of attachment heads.

Muscle structure

Composed of individual cells called fibers. Cells held together in bundles by connective tissue. Muscle covered by fascia = is sheath of connective tissue. Supporting tissues merge to form tendons.

Word Elements-Skeletal

Arthr/o = joint, Brachi/o = Arm, Calcane/o = heel, Dactyl/o = Finger, toe, Humer/o = upper arm bone, Phalang/o = bones of the fingers and toes, Vertebr/o = vertebrae.

Suffixes

Desis = stabilize or fuse, itis = inflammation, kinesia = movement, physis = to grow, plasty = surgical repair, porosis = porous conditions.

Word elements-Muscular System

Fibrous membrane = fasci/o, Half = hemi, Muscle = My/o, Beside, beyond, near = Para, Paralysis = plegia, Four = Quadri, Strength = Sten/o.

Obvious trauma

Visible injury or deformity to the body.

Closed fracture

A fracture where the bone does not break through the skin.

Radial pulse

The pulse felt at the wrist, indicating blood flow.

Motor power

The ability to move muscles, assessed by movement of fingers.

Sensation

The ability to feel touch or pressure.

Pain scale

A scale from 0-10 to measure the intensity of pain.

Rigid splint

A device used to immobilize a fractured limb.

Cling bandage

A flexible bandage used to secure dressings or splints.

Triangle bandage

A bandage shaped like a triangle, used for slings or dressings.

Ice pack

A pack filled with ice used to reduce swelling and pain.

Frontal plane

Divides the body into anterior and posterior parts.

Sagittal plane

Divides the body into right and left portions.

Transverse plane

Divides the body into superior and inferior parts.

Anterior (ventral)

Towards the front of the body.

Posterior (dorsal)

Towards the back of the body.

Medial

Towards the midline of the body.

Lateral

Nearer to the side of the body.

Distal

Farther from a reference point on the body.

Dorsal cavity

Contains the cranial cavity and spinal cavity.

Ventral cavity

Contains the thoracic cavity and diaphragm.

Abdominopelvic cavity

Contains the abdominal cavity, pelvic cavity, and peritoneum.

Epigastric region

The area above the stomach.

Umbilical region

The area around the navel.

Hypogastric region

The area below the stomach.

Anatomical position

Standing erect, facing forward, arms at side, palms forward, toes pointed forward.

Prone

Lying face down.

Supine

Lying face up.

Recumbent

Lying on their side.

Mastication

The process of chewing food.

Liver

Secretes bile to break down fats.

Gallbladder

Stores bile until needed.

Pancreas

Produces digestive enzymes and releases insulin.

Large intestine

Absorbs water and forms feces from undigested food.

Water reabsorption

Process where water is reabsorbed and feces are formed.

Sigmoid colon

Part of the large intestine where waste material passes before being stored in the rectum.

Rectum

Storage area for waste before elimination through the anus.

Gastrointestinal tract

A system that can be infected by a variety of organisms.

Ulcers

Lesions of the skin or mucous membrane marked by inflammation or tissue damage.

Endoscopy

A diagnostic procedure used to observe internal structures.

Barium study

A diagnostic imaging test that uses barium to visualize the gastrointestinal tract.

Polyps

Growths on the colon that can become cancerous.

Stoma

An opening created surgically for waste elimination.

Hernia

Protrusion of organs through an abnormal opening.

Pyloric stenosis

Condition where the opening between the stomach and small intestine is too narrow.

Intussusception

Condition where part of the intestine slips into another part below.