Sociology 101 Study Guide for Examination #1

Who was Auguste Comte?

a french philosopher, founder of sociology, and applied the scientific method to social life (positivism)

What is Comte’s 3 Stage Theory?

Theological (religion and superstition explain the world), Metaphysical Stage (abstract reasoning, rights, stable societies), and Positivistic Stage (empirical science explains the natural and social world

Who was Herbert Spencer?

was an English sociologist known as the “second founder of sociology,” and he is credited with developing the theory of Social Darwinism.

What is Social Darwinism?

is the belief that societies evolve naturally from primitive to civilized, and that the strongest societies will survive while weaker ones will fail, without interference.

What historical event most influenced Comte?

the French Revolution

Who was Emilie Durkheim?

was a French sociologist who founded functionalism and emphasized the importance of social integration, consensus, and the division of labor in maintaining social stability.

Who was Karl Marx?

was a German philosopher and sociologist who founded conflict theory and argued that society is shaped by the struggle between the bourgeoisie, who control the means of production, and the proletariat, who sell their labor for wages.

Who was Max Weber?

was a German sociologist who emphasized objectivity in research, introduced the concept of Verstehen, and studied the relationship between the Protestant Ethic and the rise of modern capitalism.

What is the Spirit of Capitalism?

is Weber’s idea that Puritan religious values encouraged people to live frugally, reinvest their profits, and view financial success as a sign of God’s favor, which helped the growth of capitalism.

What does Weber mean by Total Neutrality?

Weber meant that sociologists must remain objective and avoid allowing their personal values or opinions to influence their research.

What does Weber mean by “Verstehen?”

Weber meant “grasping by insight.” or understanding people’s social experiences by putting oneself in their place.

What are Manifest?

are the intended and obvious outcomes of a social structure, while latent functions are the unintended or hidden outcomes.

what are latent functions?

are the unintended or hidden outcomes.

What is Functionalism?

belief that society is like a structured system: it needs stability

What is Conflict Theory?

the belief that conflict is necessary in order for society to have social change

What is Symbolic Interactionist?

the belief that our relationships and social cues, determines our interactions

What is the Sociological Imagination?

the ability to see the relationship between individual experiences and larger social influences

Who was C. Wright Mills?

a sociologist that believed social factors like religion, ethnicity, and policies affect our behavior

What is the Division of Labor?

an interdependence of different tasks and occupations, characteristic of industrialized societies, that produce social unity and facilitates change

What is true about research theories?

must be empirical, testable, and open to reevaluation as new evidence becomes available.

What is the Protestant Ethic?

was the belief that hard work, discipline, and frugality were signs of God’s favor, which encouraged the growth of capitalism.

What is Macro-level sociology?

focuses on large-scale patterns and processes that characterize society as a whole

What is Micro-level Sociology?

examines the patterns of individuals’ social interaction in specific settings

What is Social Integration?

is the degree to which individuals feel connected to their community and society.

What are the seven steps of the Research Method?

1. Selecting a Topic, 2. reviewing the literature, 3. make a hypothesis, 4. create a research design, 5. collect data, 6. analyze data, 7. draw conclusions

What is the Hawthorne Effect?

occurs when subjects change their behavior because they know they are being observed or evaluated, often out of fear of judgment or retaliation.

What is the Independent Variable?

is the factor that researchers manipulate to test its effect (cause)

What is Qualitative Analysis?

gathers detailed and specific information, such as the role of social class or family background in teenage pregnancy rates.

What is Hypothesis?

a prediction about the relationship between variables that can be tested through research.

What is the Dependent Variable?

is the outcome being measured. (effect)

What is the Quantitative Analysis?

reduces general research data into numerical values, such as percentages or averages.

What is a Correlation?

statistical relationship between two variables.

What is Empirical Analysis?

is research based solely on scientific observation, evaluation, and evidence.

What are variables?

are characteristics that can change over time, across individuals, or between groups, such as age, income, or education level.

What is Validity?

the degree to which a measure is accurate and really measures what it claims to measure

What are Reliability?

the consistency with which the same measure produces similar results time after time

What is meant by causation?

a relationship in which one variable is the direct consequence of another

What is Secondary Analysis?

examination of data that have been collected by someone else

What are spurious correlations?

when both variable appear to be statistically related, but not logically acceptable

What is Culture?

is a design for living that includes both material and non-material elements which help people make sense of the world.

What is a Culture War?

is a conflict based on opposing cultural values, often between traditional or conservative groups and progressive or liberal groups.

What is Material Culture?

includes the physical and tangible objects of a culture such as food, clothing, buildings, and technology.

What is Non-Material Culture?

includes customs, traditions, and ideas that provide emotional meaning, such as greetings or religious rituals.

What are Norms?

are the unwritten rules of behavior that people in a society are expected to follow.

What are Values?

are concepts that a society believes are desirable, good, and correct, such as honesty and fairness

What is Folkways?

are everyday habits or conventions, such as covering your mouth when yawning.

What are Mores?

are norms considered vital to the well-being of society, such as laws against violent crimes.

What are Taboos?

are extreme violations of norms that are seen as unspeakable or inhuman, such as cannibalism or incest.

What is Ethnocentrism?

is the belief that one’s own culture or values are superior to those of other groups.

What is Cultural Relativism?

is the belief that cultures should be understood on their own terms rather than judged against another culture.

What is the Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis?

is the idea that language shapes the way people think, act, and see the world. the words and expressions available in a language influence what its speakers can understand and how they interpret reality.

What is Culture Shock?

confusion, disorientation, or anxiety that accompanies exposure to an unfamiliar way of life

What is Future Shock?

is the feeling of confusion, anxiety, or disorientation that people experience when they realize their values, knowledge have become outdated.

What is Real Culture?

people’s actual everyday behavior

What is Ideal Culture?

the belief’s values, and norms that people say they hold or follow

What is Cultural Diffusion?

the spread of cultural beliefs and activities from one group to another

What is Cultural Lag?

the gap that occurs when material culture changes faster than nonmaterial culture

What is Cultural Leveling?

is the process in which cultures become more similar to one another, often because of the spread of technology, communication, and globalization

What is Socialization?

is the process through which people internalize their culture and learn to participate in society. It happens through interaction with agents of socialization, such as family, education, peer groups, and mass media, and continues throughout the life cycle.

Who was Kingsley Davis?

he is especially mentioned for studying cases of children raised in extreme isolation, such as Anna and Isabelle. From these studies, Davis concluded that without social interaction and teaching from others, children cannot develop normally—they may remain alive but unable to function as fully interactive human beings.

What is the Nature/Nurture Debate?

is a disagreement among scientists about human development. Biologists emphasize heredity and genetics (nature), while sociologists and other social scientists stress learning, culture, and socialization (nurture). Many researchers believe that both heredity and environment work together in shaping human being

Who was Harry and Margaret Harlow?

conducted studies on behavior patterns on Rhesus monkey. Based on their research, the Harlow’s concluded that primates did not possess “natural instincts.” and needed to be socialized by other monkeys in order for proper behavior development to take place.

Who was Sigmund Freud?

the father ofmodern psychoanalysis) argued that one’s personality was strongly influenced by biological forces. in three parts: id, superego, ego.

Who was Jean Piaget?

focused on COGNITION and AFFECTIVE DEVELOPMENT. His process of development has four stages. (cognitive skills, affective development, sensorimotor stage, preoperational stage)

What are the Agents of Socialization?

1. Family – teaches culture, gender roles, and basic interaction.

2. Education – transmits knowledge, skills, and prepares people for societal expectations.

3. Peer Groups – allow individuals to interact with friends of similar age and status, often influencing attitudes and behavior.

4. Mass Media – shapes beliefs and values by providing powerful images of right and wrong, as well as desirable and undesirable behaviors.

Who was Charles Horton Cooley?

who studied how people develop their sense of self through social interaction. He is most famous for creating the idea of the “Looking-Glass Self,” which means that we form our self-image by imagining how others see us, interpreting their reactions, and then shaping how we feel about ourselves based on those judgments.

Who was George Herbert Mead?

developed the concept of “looking-glass self.” argued people form their sense of self by imaging how others see them, interpreting the reactions of others, and then building their self-image based on those perceptions

What are two important roles of adulthood?

work and parenthood

What is meant by Resocialization?

is the process of learning new values, norms, attitudes, and behaviors to replace what a person previously learned.

What is Anticipatory Socialization?

is the process of preparing for future roles, responsibilities, or social positions by adopting the values and behaviors connected to them before actually entering them.