SS104 Study Guide Week 1-2

Modules 1-4

Georgian Period

1714-1837

Victorian Period

1837-1901 (notable for the reign of Queen Victoria)

Agricultural Revolution

• from 1750-1830

• Manorialism and Feudalism (1300s, 1400s, 1500s) → some land being farmed by smaller landowners and others farmed by serfs/peasants, common lands 

  • Farming in strips → very inefficient 

Enclosure Acts

• 1604-1914

•  takes away common lands and gives more power to large landowners more efficient to farm enclosed fields than random strips of land 

  • Rectangular plots of land

    • Begins to harm smaller landowners, some people left behind and now forced to migrate 

    • Production increases (doubles in fact)

    • New World Crops: potatoes, squash, tomatoes, corn (maize)

    • Crop rotation and animal husbandry (sheep for shearing, lamb for rocky soils, etc. choosing animals to breed together)

    • Charles “turnip” Townshend → 4 field system, no fields ever fallow, clover and turnips give nutrients to the soil 

Enlightenment

• 1651

• Factors in by recognizing how people want to make their lives better

• Financial growth: market expansion, making more profit, Bank of England founded in 1694 → investment culture quite strong 

• The Scientific Revolution may have shifted this change in farming earlier 

Pros and Cons of Increased Agricultural Output

Pros:  Increased nourishment, longer life span, decreased mortality, more jobs, increased population and childbirth + infant life span (more children to work on the farm), more affordable food, urbanization, rich people increase power and prestige

Cons: Waste from surplus of food (no refrigeration), more exploitation for work, less fair wages, people forced to migrate to newer jobs after Enclosure Act, changes work patterns, Luddites (smashing machines), overcrowding and less sanitary conditions, changed family dynamic due to primogeniture so other children left to fend for themselves 

Life in New England During Agricultural Revolution

• An agricultural society (90%) 

• From subsistence to specialization 

• American South and slavery (large-scale agricultural), gentlemen farmers, plantations 

• Growth westward and scale of farming 

• Not innovating to the degree of England 

Demographic Revolution

• Consumer Revolution happening alongside 

• Urbanization → instead of growing upwards, growing and expanding outwards (new fill) 

• Exponential, rapid growth 

• Gin St. —> Destruction, chaos, emaciated

• Shows the negative effects of cheap gin on London’s poor.

• Depicts poverty, crime, addiction, neglect, and social decay caused by excessive gin drinking.

• It was a warning about the dangers of gin abuse, which was rampant in the mid-1700s.vs.

• Beer Lane —> full bellies, structured, etc.Shows a healthy, prosperous, and happy community where people drink beer, which was seen as a safer, more moderate alcoholic beverage.

• Symbolizes social order, hard work, and well-being.

Why did the population grow and then urbanize?

1. subsistence level before 1700 bc harvests/disease

2. medical knowledge better (but not great)

3. people stopped delaying marriage/children as urban areas opened up new spaces to live and work (but overcrowding follows)

4. more women got married after industrial revolution and earlier, so longer time for reproduction

   —> men no longer were getting apprenticeships that delayed marriage

5. improved nutrition ex. potato

6. technology —> improved transport allows for foodstuffs to be moved so a local area of famine could get food from other areas not affected

7. economics

Summary:
- enclosure --> privatized and enclosed land of landowners, eliminated traditional common lands, geared agriculture towards market rather than local family and village production. 
- landless laborers moved to factories, mills, and mines
- transportation --> canal and road system, facilitated goods, people, and raw materials
- iron for machinery, after 1850s became steel for railroads, cities, factories, etc.
- coal/coke for firing steam engines and blast furnaces

1st Industrial Revolution

• 1750-1850 ish

• Begins in Manchester —> Agricultural Revolution, some old pastoral qualities with strips vs. rectangular enclosed plots

• Churches: Puritan ideal that wasting time is sinful, shared by methodists and other evangelical groups

• Peak of industrialization near 1815

• women start to work in factories

• key industries: textile and cotton factories, iron w/ buildings and railways, mining with coal

• key technologies: canals, trains/railways

• Britain develops banking and credit system, boosting a market economy

• 1850: More factories, cows, canals, waterways, power of river to work machines

2nd Industrial Revolution (1860-1910 ish)

• By 1870, lots more buildings,grey and polluted air from coal, people living above shop, privies due to no running water, gas lights on the street

• Development of electricity, new types of engines, and new chemicals and industrial materials 

• Oil and steel especially important 

• steam and steamships

• Internal combustion engines, commercial drilling, etc. 

• Widespread construction of railroad networks, ocean going steamships, automobiles, airplanes

• 1870-1914 → electricity, wireless telegraph, chemical industry, etc. 

• Consumer capitalism, more consumer goods 

• Department stores and mail-order catalogs

Victorian Era Periods

Queen Victoria 1837-1901

• 1837-1851 Early Victorian 

• 1851-1877 Mid-Victorian

• 1877-1901 Late Victorian

Class System Shifts

• rise of the middle class/property owning bourgeosie and proletariat/working class

• The richest members of the bourgeoisie did not replace the aristocracy but merged with it through marriage 

• Transactional relationships 

• Aristocracy → class whose authority and power were rooted in land ownership and ancestry with martial past, class of leisure 

  • Industrial bourgeoisie → commercial or professional achievement 

  • Distinct, male dominated gender code (separate spheres) 

  • Women confined to home while men were allowed in business, politics, and property ownership 

Karl Marx

• leading development of these two classes … one’s class position determined by one's relationship to the means of production. Members of bourgeois own and control means of production, while proletariat do not. 

• Born in 1818

• Father was enthusiastic liberal and raised his son on Enlightenment works 

• Converted to protestantism to avoid legal inequalities imposed on jews

• Many of his publications were suppressed 

• Materialistic interpretation of society - all history is about the control of the modes of production and class struggle → economic determinism  (life is determined by my connection to modes of production and economic status of myself, my family, my country) 

• For marx, the invisible hand only helps the few (It’s a term coined by economist Adam Smith in the 18th century.

• It describes how individuals, by pursuing their own self-interest (like making money), unintentionally help the economy and society as a whole.

• Basically, when people try to improve their own situation, it can lead to good outcomes for everyone, as if guided by an invisible hand.)

• Predicted that capitalism would experience a secular trend toward falling profits, ever increasing scale of industry and resultant decrease in number of firms 

  • Worldwide economic depressions and crises 

  • Lots of wealth created by capitalism but inevitably entire system would come crashing down

Factory Conditions

• Factories often hot, crowded, loud, dangerous

• Working hours were long, few breaks, child labor 

• Division of labor → workers did specific, repetitive tasks 

• Workers won right to strike in 1870s

• In industries and regions where union organization was strong, wages and working conditions did improve over time 

• Factory Acts starting in 1802,, 1847 Ten Hours Act where working day was max 10 hours for women and children 13-18 

• Health and Morals of Apprentices Act (1802)

  • First-ever factory law in Britain.

  • Focused on apprentice workers (mostly children in cotton mills).

  • Required:

    • Factories to provide basic education for apprentices.

    • Limits on working hours for apprentices: max 12 hours/day.

    • Some improvements in ventilation and cleanliness of factories.

  • Weak enforcement — no inspectors to ensure compliance.

• Factory Act of 1833

  • No children under 9 could work in textile factories.

  • Children aged 9–13: max 48 hours/week (8 hours/day).

  • Children aged 14–18: max 69 hours/week.

  • Required 2 hours of education/day for children.

  • Appointed inspectors to enforce the law (first time ever).

  Factory Act of 1844

  • Applied to women and children.

  • Limited women's working hours to 12/day.

  • Improved machine safety rules (guarding machines).

  • Children required to attend school half-day.

  Factory Act of 1847 (Ten Hours Act)

  • Limited the workday to 10 hours for women and children in textile factories.

  Factory Act of 1850

  • Set fixed working hours: 6 a.m. to 6 p.m. in summer; 7 a.m. to 7 p.m. in winter.

  Factory Act of 1878

  • Brought all factories under one law.

  • Banned child labor under age 10.

  • Compulsory education for children up to age 10.

  • Maximum working hours: 56.5 per week for women.

Combination Acts (1799-1800)

→ made workers unions illegal, defended the property and privilege of the capitalist class , repealed in 1825

Cholera Epidemic

1830s and 1840s, contaminated water

• → public health movement 

• Second half of the 19th century → government initiatives supplied more accessible drinking water, sanitation, and sewage systems in industrial cities .. still was crowded and dirty 

Extractive Industries

environmental damage from coal mining and oil drilling —> industrial pollution

Great migration

1840-1914
- great migration from Europe to Americas, Asiatic Russia, Australia, New Zealand

Why was England the Birthplace of the industrial revolution and arguably, modern society?

1. political liberty entrenched

2. powerful economy, manufacturing and Britain’s place at the heart of international banking

3. scientific curiousity long held

4. lack of monarchial influnece over financial and trade policy —> commitment to free trade

5. protestantism (weber)

6. parliamentary belief that govt should support progress —> use royal navy to protect trade routes, fund the creation of roads and canals

7. maturity and experience —> prestige and culture of innovation, growht, opportunity, innovation, and jobs characterized much of the Victorian era

Consequences of Industrial revolution

• Rights and reform

• Child labor

• Working conditions 

• Unionization and protest

• Romanticism and transcendentalism

• Utopianism

• Immigration and urbanization 

• Capitalism 

• Empire

• Invention

• modernity ??

Women working in coal mine pits

• generational difficulty, working class women in pits, working 12 hour shifts even if pregnant, cramped and dark shafts 

L.T Hobhouse

• Liberalism is “saturated with the conviction that the unfettered action of the individual is the mainspring of all progress.”

• The more the individual receives free scope for the play of his faculties, the more rapidly will society as a whole advance → classical liberalism (freedom to do what they want w/individual rights, mainly middle class men who want power)

Classical Liberalism Principles

—> they are proud of themselves because they’re the ones investing into machines, providing indoor work for laborers

1. Freedoms - press, etc.

2. Primacy of the individual 

3. Skepticism of power 

4. Rule of law, written constitutions

5. Rights – property, locke 

6. Free trade (laissez-faire) limited tariffs → adam smith 

7. Limited, elected parliamentary govt -> consent of the governed 

8. Foreign policy based on freedom of action (free movement of capital, labor, people, good and services, and ideas) 

9. Who? Landowners, new business people and professional classes (Marx would call them bourgeoiusie) 

• Strongest supporters of classical liberalism were businessmen, bourgeoisie, professionals who had no political role in the absolutist monarchies and wanted rights to think, worship, and conduct business free from restrictions of censorship, religion, and mercantilist economic regulation 

Protestant Theology

• emphasized the responsibility of the individual for his own salvation

• combined with the breakdown of manorial agriculture and guild system that led each man to become an independent economic actor

• The Bible is the sole and final authority in matters of faith and practice.

• Rejects traditions not rooted directly in Scripture.

1. Sola Fide (Faith Alone)

   • Salvation comes through faith in Jesus Christ alone, not by good works or church rituals.

2. Sola Gratia (Grace Alone)

   • Salvation is a free gift of God’s grace, not earned by human effort.

3. Priesthood of All Believers

   • Every Christian has direct access to God without needing a priest as a mediator.

   • Encourages personal Bible reading and interpretation.

4. Justification by Faith

   • People are made right with God through faith, not through indulgences or sacraments.

Scientific Revolution

• man could use his faculties to understand the world aruond him and thereby gain more control over it

Enlightenment

• optimistic view of human nature, liberal view made this possible

John Locke (1632-1704)

• Consent of the governed, checks and balances → disapproved democracy, felt that people with a fair amount of property should take part in govt 

  • Property as the most important right that govt must protect, alongside freedom of worship, publication, and speech 

  • contributed to classical liberalism thought

Representative Government

• system in which citizens elect legislators to represent them in making decisions

• Representative govt was developed further by Montesquieu and Tocqueville 

  • Montesquieu: separation of powers 

  

  • Tocqueville: concerned that representative govt was no guarantee of freedom for the individual, even w carefully separated powers 

    • Felt that it’s inappropriate for uneducated men w no property to be involved in govt 

    • Tyranny of the majority → force of public opinion in a polity where ultimate authority resides in the people

Democracy

• rule by the people, every citizen entitled to have a voice in the decision

Jeremy Bentham (1748-1832)

• Utilitarianism → only policies that work well and are conducive to human progress and happiness are useful, and therefore worth pursuing 

• Classical Liberal but next version → “greatest good for the greatest number of people” 

• While it’s about morality and social issues, it was used to underpin Classical Liberal economics 

• Individual good tied into overall “good” (doesn’t include women, only focuses on white men)

Adam Smith

•  set individual free to achieve what he can in life, unencumbered by unnecessary govt supervision or regulation 

  • Classical liberal 

  • Wealth of nations, economic activity is motivated by individual self interest and regulated not by govt but by competition 

  • It was a protest against the arbitrariness, economic ignorance, and general ineffectiveness of mercantilist economic policies 

  • Didn’t deny that govts should care about the economic well being of their ppl, merely asserted mercantilist policies did more harm than good 

  • Corn Laws → aimed to protect british farmers by placing a tariff on imported grain, keeping price of bread artificially high, also meaning high wages 

  • Repeal of Corn Laws by Parliament in 1846 → victory for liberal economic thought

Laissez Faire

• created by adam smith

• leaving people alone to pursue their own self interest. The best govt is least govt, govt should intervene in the activities of individuals only when there is compelling public reason to do so 

  • Economic exchange best left to voluntary, rational exchanges between individuals 

  • Govt should not determine what to produce, how to save, or what to build or trade

  • Govt planning and organization decreased prosperity and increases poverty 

  • Supply and demand + smith’s invisible hand of free trade (naturallly guides what will happen economically) 

  • Leaving individuals to pursue their own self-interest or liberty to make money fo themselves and their country 

  • Anti mercantilism of the past (heavy taxation) 

  • Specialiazatoin through division of labor → smith vs. specializatoin by country → ricardo 

  • Healthy competition .. why now? Incipeint industrialization 

Classical Liberalism in the 19th Century

• liberals opposed legislation intended to reform appalling working conditions of the early factories. 

  • Fought against legalization of labor unions, prohibition of child labor, attempts to shorten work day, efforts to make factory work less dangerous → all in the name of laissez faire

John Stuart Mill

Argued that toleration of unpopular, obnoxious opinion is essential to a free society and its absence indicates a society that does not value freedom sufficiently

Socialism

• based on ideas of the Enlightenment

• equality of men and potential to solve human problems by the application of reason

• Valued cooperation over individualism, did not deny the value of the individual → each must be given an opportunity to develop to the best of his potential 

• Approve of representative govt and guarantees of civil rights 

• Govt involvement in economy is necessary to make sure no members of society are poor, uneducated, abused, and ignored by govt 

Communism

• follows Karl Marx

• production , distribution, exchange of goods of all members of society is collectively owned 

• Seized ownership of assets and managed them through central bureaucracy

• Meant to be fairer society for everyone 

Friedrich Engels (1820-1895)

• Wrote book showing disturbing life in city’s teeming slums and smoky factories 

• Revolutionary socialist 

• Son of a factory owner in Germany and England (middle-class) 

• Manchester – the shock city of the Industrial Age 

• Engels gets to Manchester and realizes the reality of the situation 

Thomas Malthus (1766-1834)

• Essays on the Principle of Population (1798) 

• Food production will not keep pace 

• Reproduction should be limited for the poor and WC 

• Attempts by the state to help the downtrodden were counterproductive because doesn’t allow for “the market” → invisible hand either helps or harms you, but if you work harder perhaps would not harm 

• Liberals therefore would oppose poor relief in the classic sense

• In Malthusian theory, the "point of crisis" refers to the moment when a population's growth outpaces its ability to produce enough food, leading to a catastrophe

  

Utopianism

• Robert Owen (1771-1858)

  • Utilitarian 

  • New lanark, scotland

  • Borrowed from Christian ideas of community, need to build support

  • Working class + entrepreneuer New Harmony, Indiana

Sir Titus Salt

• Saltaire 1851

• Saltaire is famous for being a UNESCO World Heritage Site, recognized for its historical significance as a well-preserved 19th-century industrial model village and its influence on town planning. It's particularly known for its unique Italianate architecture, the impressive Salts Mill, and its connection to the textile industry. Additionally, Saltaire houses a significant collection of David Hockney's artwork within Salts Mill. 

Romanticism and Gothic Revival

• Passion without political upheaval 

• Love for the past as seen in arts and humanities 

• Enlgihtenment was a reaction agains the Middle Ages and hearkened back to Antiquity

• Romantics hearkened to time of tradition and simplicity, reacting against upheaval and urbanization/industrialization 

Classical Conservatism

• Mainland Europe 

• Particularly reactions to France by Germanic Peoples

• Oppositional to classical liberalism and nationalism 

• Napoleon’s empire

• Return to the past, concert of vienna (people come together to end napoleonic war’s which lasted for 17 yrs) 

  • After napoleon’s defeat at Waterloo in 1815, the major powers met in Vienna to design new balance of power system that would limit the risk of general wars in the future 

  • Bring back stability through monarchy, tradition, faith, hierarchy, aristocracy, no rep govt. 

  • Crown (monarch), Altar (go to church), landed Gentry in charge

  • lack of trust in the working class

  • belief in God

    

Edmund Burke

• role of tradition as a guiding force on societal development

Von Metternich (1773-1859)

• prince

• disallows minority national groups from upsetting the balance of the bigger powers

• prevent any form of representational govt that could bring about bloodshed in Europe

• press censorship

• architect of congress of vienna and balance of power theory

Industrialization

• Time

• Speed

• Loss of pastoral way of life

• Population

• Poverty

• Power

Romanticism + Industrialization = Socialism

• Socialism arose as a reaction to social inequalities brought about by capitalism in Europe (Women in Pits, Sadler, poverty, sanitary conditions, and other inequalities) 

• Socialists want to impove the conditions of these people compared to classical liberals who dgaf 

Early 19th Century Socialism

• Based on Enlightenment ideals of equality and reason

• Rejects “greedy” individualism of Classical Liberalism and Laissez faire economic system that does not allow for govt intervention to imrpove conditions

• Values individual in terms of personal development (Enlightenment ideas about each person being valued, not just one kind of person)

• Would like each individual to have the opportunity to develop their potential meaning safety, education, clothing 

• Almost like civic humanism 

• Felt that their society of newfound wealth and progress could make it a possibility for everyone o live up to their potential

• Bringing everyone up together 

• Share ownership of natural resources and methods of distribution → God given natural resources from the Earth 

  • Agrees with classical liberals on free press and votes for all

  • Agrees with mill version of utilitarianism →voters need to be literate, live safely  ex. Equal education 

  • Agrees with private property should be respected and individual needs 

  • Feel wealth should be shared because created by nature ex. Cotton, coal, etc. 

Methods: have been very diff in diff times in diff places 

Principles of Socialism

• primarily an economic model

• values community, cooperation, equality, class politics, common ownership

Early Socialism = Utopianism

France —> Saint Simon (1760-1825)

• Anticipated the donation of lands by the wealthy and MC to the public

• Ideas an outgrowht of Christianity, 1825

• Industrailization should be Chrsitianized and can be force for good 

• Scientists and intellectuals shouljd be in charge of natural resources with the State to build up the community, not focused on wealth 

• Charles Fourier (1772-1837)

  • Phalanx/Phalange

  • Failed attempts —> people don’t have enough money to invest in the town, no one in charge, no one to lead, doesn’t exactly work 

  • Farming - thinker + worker 

• Robert Owen (1771-1858)

Revolutionary Socialists

• Led by workers rather than the middle class factory owners of Utopian Socialism( middle down, revolutioanry socialist is bottom up)  (workers must overthrow the entire system) 

• Revolution

• Blandqui, Engels, Marx

Auguste Blanqui (1805-1881), French

• Workers should look for a just society through revolution 

• Spent 33 years in jail due to his dedication to small secret societies 

• In favour of dictators first, after overthrow there should be a dictator in charge and everyone can follow that person.. Absolutist but not monarch x

• Workers should be educated so they can vote according to their own interests (saw this fail to happen again in 1848)

Romanticism + Industrialization + Marxist Revolutionary Socialism = Communism

• Marx and Engels reject the Utopian socialist idea that the bourgeoisie will generously give up the means to production and it should be taken by Revolution

• Seize factories and run on own 

Marx and Engels didn’t think rich people would just give up their factories. They said workers have to take the factories by force in a revolution and run them themselves.

what is the result of communism for marx?

• Class distinctions disappear 

• All production exists with the nation 

• State will disappear after some time 

• complete equality

1848

• year of revolutions

• German Confederation, Austro-Hungarian Empire, Italy → govt doesnt understand the people, people are divided, young people want voices 

• England → no revolution since they already had it in 1688

• France → lots of revolution 

• About nationalism and liberalism, not the worker, except for France 

• No marxian overthrow in Western Europe bc Europe is land of milk and honey w unions, demand for labor, unions give power where overthrow not needed, gentle reforms 

Concert of Vienna

• after Napoleon’s defeat at Waterloo in 1815, major powers met in Vienna to design a new balance of power system that would limit the risk of general wars in the future

• bring about stability and end of an era of what was perceived as upheaval by going back and embracing the old:

  • monarchy

  • tradition

  • faith

  • hierarchy

  • aristocracy

  • no rep govt

Communist Manifesto, 1848

Main Points:
1. History is about class struggle

2. Bourgeoisie are pawns who can only see their self-interest and work for capitalistic benefit

3. capitalism needs new markets to make more money. other people must be colonized to open up new markets for the goods of the bourg. —> links to imperialism and nationalism

4. the modern working class - proletariat - are the means to an end for the bourgeoisie to produce more, but that this is “the weapon that brings death to itself”

5. the diminutization of skilled labour and the rise of the machines is “modern slavery”

6. the workers unite to try and build strength, internationally, form worker’s parties and evoke change

7. the bourgeoisie exists in opposition to the old society and the new

8. the proletariat is a revolutionary class

9. history evolves through ones relation to the means of production and capital

Aftermath of the Second Industrial Rev. +Growth of Cities

• second industrial rev led to steel, chemicals, electricity, oil, trolleys, telegraph

• By 1913, the UK had increased industrial output far greater than any other country. This is also a comparison to 1860 where they were not reaching 91-115 range per capita. Other countries neighboring it had also slowly progressed, with Germany following in industrial output. The United states had 35% of the world’s manufacturing products in 1913, and actually germany surpassed the UK with 15.7% compared to 14.0% in the UK. In 1870 though, the UK was leading in worlds manufacturing products. → the UK had the 1st Industrial Revolution before anyone else, but then the US later took over. 

• in europe: era of nationalism, imperialism

• in us: gilded age

Pre-Industrial Urbanization

1500-1800 —> paris, milan, venice, naples

Manchester

• Enclosure → people moving into cities, working in industry and factories → more pollution, more jobs, and crowding 

Paris

• more condensed, into smaller radius. people cramped up together

Berlin

• Expanded network, from smaller circle to more widespread city layout. 

• Medieval wall, container 

• Breakdown of those city walls that lead to expansion 

London

• Expanded outside the city of London, clustered around river 

Liverpool

• Large shipping port 

• Manmade docks by 1889 

• First chinatown, irish population, black immigration 

• Economics founded around enslavement of Africans 

• Liverpool very divided, catholics and protestants, football. 

• Wealthy owners in the shipping industry invested money into Liverpool 

Urban Life

• Accent in London can indicate a lot about a person’s class 

• Urban Classes in the West 

  • Upper Classes, Middle Classes/Bourgeoisie → diverse and divided, commerce x wealth 

    • Consumption 

    • Seek to increase power but not challenge the status quo 

  • Working classes

    • Have their own stratification – skilled vs. unskilled laborers 

    • artisans/guilds 

social stratification

• all the social classes, everyone belongs to their own social class 

social class

• : segment of society whose members hold similar amounts of resources, values, norms, and lifestyle 

  • But also, property, wealth (not income), power and prestige 

  • Status inconsistency → in a place you’re not quite in or comfortable with, having to speak or act a certain way 

pressures of urban life

• 1834 Poor Law → Creation of Workhouses (if you’re in debt, etc.) they were so bad that people would rather die than work in them 

  • Government starting to step in and help them but horrific conditions 

  • Classical liberals not impressed by this, but utilitarian movement led this 

• Cholera, Slums are put at risk → slum clearances 

positives of urban life

• Bazalgette (1819-1891) → puts sewers in London around 1850s (Great Stink, London 1860) 

• Isamabard Kingdom Bruenl (1806-1859) 

• John Fowler (1817-1891)

• Prince Albert D. 1861

• John Snow (1813-1858)

• Philosophes of Industrialization 

Jack the Ripper

• Whitechapel, 1888

• The Press + Policing 

• The Five 

Immigration + Migration

• Pushes and Pulls → so many people in Europe, 266m in 1850 and 447m in 1910

• Persecution: Pogroms in Russia : The word comes from Russian and means “to wreak havoc” or “to destroy violently.”

• Most famously, pogroms happened in Russia and Eastern Europe in the 19th and early 20th centuries, where mobs attacked Jewish communities—looting homes, burning synagogues, and killing people.

• Pogroms often reflected deep antisemitism and were used to scapegoat minorities during times of political or economic unrest.

• Jewish people settled in the East End 

• Rails, steamships, roads aid in migration and returns 

• Cheap land to farm and better wages elsewhere

  • Famine

  • Poverty 

• East End Shabbat, 1911

Enlightenment Ideals

• Faith in reason andhuman rationality to reject the tradition and the pre-established institutions and thoughts 

• Search for the practical, useful knowledge as the power to control nature (empirical, scientific)

Deism

• separation of church and state, democracy/republicanism, constituionalism, rights, equality, liberty, freedom 

• Natural Theology: human beings can come to know God through reason and the study of nature, not through revealed religion (e.g., sacred texts or divine prophecy).

• Rejection of Revelation: rejects the authority of religious scriptures, prophets, and dogma. The Bible (or any other holy book) is seen as a human product, not divine revelation.

• God as a Non-Interventionist Creator: God created the universe and its laws, but does not intervene in its ongoing operation. This includes rejection of miracles, divine punishment or reward, and personal involvement in daily life.

• Moral Rationalism: often hold that morality is grounded in rational thought, not divine command, and that ethical behavior can be discovered through reason.

Period after Enlightenment “dies”

period of conservatism, Every time there’s a lot of change or expansion, there’s a push and pull backwards to closing and shutting it down.

coverature

legal ruler (in US/UK) that says that a woman is covered by the men in her life, no ability to own anything such as property, not able to make any money (if so, it goes to the man in your life). Marriage provides coverage.

primogeniture

oldest son inherits everything

Femininity

For example, girls and women are generally expected to dress in typically feminine ways and be polite, accommodating, and nurturing.

feminism

belief in social, economic, and political equality of the sexes.

Black Victorian Womanhood in North Atlantic

Sojourner Truth 

• Black Woman in Victorian Period 

• African American abolitionist and women’s rights activist.

• Born into slavery but escaped to freedom.

• Famous for her speech “Ain’t I a Woman?” advocating for both racial and gender equality.

• Worked extensively in the Northern abolitionist movement.

Sarah Parker Remond (1824-1894), Salem + Liverpool

• Born in Salem, Massachusetts; active also in Liverpool, England.

• Abolitionist and lecturer who traveled internationally speaking against slavery.

• Later became a physician in Europe.

• Connected with prominent abolitionist circles on both sides of the Atlantic.

Harriet Hayden (1816-1893), Beacon Hill

• Lived in Boston’s Beacon Hill neighborhood, a hub for abolitionists and free Black community.

• Known for her support of the Underground Railroad.

• Funded efforts to help freed and escaped slaves.

Martha Bailey Briggs (1838-1889), New Bedford 

• educator and abolitionist from New Bedford, Massachusetts.

• Worked to improve education for Black children and promote civil rights.

Mary Seacole (1806-1881), London 

• Jamaican-born nurse and businesswoman based in London.

• Known for her work during the Crimean War, nursing soldiers on the battlefield.

• Overcame racial prejudice to become a pioneering figure in nursing history.

• Often contrasted with Florence Nightingale.

pushing cult of domesticity

• Burgeoning Suffrage Movement USA 

• Elizabeth Cady Stanton, Susan B. Anthony, and Mott 

• Declaratoin of Snetiments, 1848, Seneca Falls 

• Frederick Douglass present 

equal rights association, 1869

—> (splits over the issue of voting rights for African American men)

White women trying to gain legal status, ex. Coverture (should white middle class women get the right to vote before black men?, some believe that black men should have the same rights as white women and some do not)

Men Working for Equality

UK - John Stuart Mill (subjection of women)

15th amendment

• 1870

• After the election of Ulysses S. Grant to the presidency in 1868, Congress proposed a new amendment that would ban all restrictions on the right to vote regarding ethnicity and prior slave status

The Anti’s

(Anti-Suffragists/Suffragettes) 

• Massachusetts also had the oldest and strongest anti-woman suffrage organization in the US. Massachusetts Association opposed to the further extension of suffrage to women, founded in 1895. 

• Pro-Suffrage Women marched in 1915, people wore red to protest against them 

• On 2 November 1915, Massachusetts men went to the polls and voted against universal suffrage by a nearly two-to-one margin

• MANY women were antis

• Women could vote from 1691-1780??

WW1: 1914-1919

England - The White Feather Campaign 

US - Woodrow Wilson 

UK: 1918/1928 (women who don’t own property got graned in 1928) 

US: 19th Amendment (1920) 

birth control

“Women’s sexual and reproductive health and rights as a cause for social concern.” 

Marie Stopes (1880-1958) → mixed with eugenics, thinks poor women should be limiting their family size 

Margaret Sanger (1879-1966) → motivated by seeing dangerous, illegal abortions 

suffragettes

• civil disobedience (doing whatever it takes) → Pankhurst Family: especially Emmeline Pankhurst and her daughters—were central leaders of the British women’s suffrage movement in the late 19th and early 20th centuries.

  They founded and led the Women’s Social and Political Union (WSPU), known for its militant tactics like protests, hunger strikes, and civil disobedience to demand women’s right to vote. Their activism dramatically raised public awareness and pressured the government to eventually grant voting rights to women.

suffragists

• peaceful, political, mud march → Millicent Fawcett

• The United Procession of Women, or Mud March as it became known, was a peaceful demonstration in London on 9 February 1907 organised by the National Union of Women's Suffrage Societies (NUWSS), in which more than three thousand women marched from Hyde Park Corner to the Strand in support of women's suffrage.

campaigns

• Parlor Politics (Newport, RI) —> informal political discussions held in private homes, where elites and community leaders influenced decisions behind the scenes. This practice allowed influential groups—and sometimes women—to shape politics in a period before widespread public political participation.

• Civil Disobedience 

• parades, pageants—> parades and pageants were powerful tools in women’s campaigns, especially during the suffrage movement, as they publicly showcased women’s strength, unity, and demands for rights. These events combined spectacle, symbolism, and performance to draw attention, inspire supporters, and challenge traditional gender roles in highly visible ways.

Growth of Cities (Urbanization)

• Germany becomes its own country in 1831. 

• Protestant countries doing better than Catholic. Southern Europe is left behind. 

• Portugal behind, no investment back into the country. 

Growth of Capitals and Ports 1600-1750:
- monarchical bureaucracy and commerce

big towns grow into cities, 1750-1830:
- factories grow and so do neighboring populations

• link to agriculture

• Ruhr/Saar Valley — Germany (coal)

• Lyon/Lille — France (manufacturing) Birmingham — UK

• steam engine, migration into cities for work

• creation of a waged labor force - proletarianization — 1848

map

slum clearance

the urban renewal process aimed at eliminating slums and blight by demolishing deteriorated housing and replacing it with new developments such as public housing, commercial buildings, or industrial facilities.

pushes and pulls of immigration

• 1850: 266 million people in Europe

• 1910: 447 million people in Europe

• persecution: Pogroms in Russia

• rails, steamships, roads, aid in migration and returns

• cheap land to farm and better wages elsewhere

• famine

• poverty

immigration reactions

• nativism

• conversion

• desire for assimilation or acculturation?

• melting pot or mosaic?

• The Mortar of Assimilation

women of the Enlightenment in England —> bluestockings

group of intellectual women in 18th-century England who formed a literary and social circle focused on conversation, education, and challenging societal norms regarding women's roles. They are known for their informal salons where they discussed literature, philosophy, and other topics, often with prominent male thinkers.

Cult of Domesticity

a 19th-century ideology that defined the roles of women in the upper and middle classes, particularly in the United States and Britain. It emphasized four key virtues: piety, purity, submissiveness, and domesticity. This ideology confined women to the private, domestic sphere, while men operated in the public sphere of work and politics

cult of womanhood

a collection of attitudes that associated “true” womanhood with the home and family.

The “New Woman” 1890s

• challenge the status quo of the domestic sphere

• education and enter the public sphere

Suffrage Movements in the US (Gilded Age)

NWSA (1869)
- stanton

- susan b. anthony

- more radical, equal education, rights, voting

AWSA (1869)

- lucy stone

- moderate, more limited suffrage (local only)

NAWSA, 1890

Suffrage Movements in the UK

NUWSS (1897)
- millicent Fawcett suffragists

• peaceful, political mud march

WSPU (1903)

• pankhurst family

• suffragettes

• militancy, civil disobedience

• emily davison at the derby