anatomy exam 1

what is physiology

The branch of biology that deals with the normal functions of living organisms and their parts, the way in which a living organism or bodily part functions

what are examples of physiology

digestion, cardiac function, respiration, immune system, blood & circulation, renal system, endocrine system.

what are the four main tissue types

connective tissue, epithelial tissue, nervous tissue, muscular tissue

whats an example of connective tissue

bones, blood

whats an example of epithelial tissue

skin, tegument, glands

whats an example of nervous tissue

brain

whats an example of muscular tissue

skeletal, cardiac

what are the functions of glands

make and release products

what are the types of glands

endocrine and exocrine

how do exocrine glands release their products

always from the apical side and products have localized effects

How do endocrine glands release their products?

Always to the basolateral side and products always go into the blood – called hormones with global effects

endocrine glands are…

small and spread out around the body

how does long distance signaling work? with hormones

endocrine cell takes hormones out → then the hormones go into the blood vessel → it travels in the bloodstream → until it reaches the target cell

types of hormones

amino acid based and steroidal

amino acid based (peptides)

Move into the blood

cannot enter other cells

steroidal

made from cholesterol

can cross cell membrane

hormones require receptors…

no receptors? (no influence)

hormone receptor location on the plasma membrane

amino acid based

hormone receptor location inside the cell

steroidal

what happens when hormones bind?

• Change membrane permeability

• Synthesis of enzymes (proteins)

• Activate or deactivate enzymes

• increased rate of gland release

• induce mitosis

regulation of hormone release

• Humoral stimuli

• Neural stimuli

• Hormonal stimuli

what is humoral stimuli

Response to changes in blood ion levels

what is neural stimuli

Nervous system activates

what is Hormonal Stimuli

another hormone activates

Growth hormone (GH) is made by what?

the pituitary gland

What causes the pituitary gland to make more or less GH?

Feedback Loops

what is the feedback loops controlled by

the pituitary gland controlled by the hypothalamus

Hypothalamus makes….

GHIH- growth hormone inhibiting hormone

GHRH- growth hormone releasing hormone

what happens when you have too much GH?

Hypothalamus makes more GHIH and releases it→ the pituitary gland takes it lowers GH levels

what happens when you have too little GH?

Hypothalamus makes more GHRH and releases it to → the pituitary gland→ then it increases GH

What hormone is involved in the regulation of blood sugar levels by the endocrine system

insulin

the pancreas has which glands?

endocrine and exocrine

endocrine pancreatic islet cells

alpha cells and beta cells

what do alpha cells make

glucagon

what do beta cells make

insulin

glucagon does what

binds to receptors in the liver

insulin does what

binds to receptors on fat (& liver) cells

What would happen if you have low blood sugar

pancreas → glucagon released by alpha cells of the pancreas→ then goes to the liver → then the glucose gets released into the blood→ then back to normal blood levels

what would happen if you have high blood sugar levels

pancreas→ insulin released by beta cells of the pancreas→ insulin goes to the fat cells→ then the fat cells take in glucose from blood→ then back to normal blood levels

what is diabetes mellitus

chronically high blood sugar

type 1 diabetes mellitus

Insulin not made

genetic

deficiency

Type 2 diabetes mellitus

Insulin is present but not enough secreted

diet t

high blood sugar causes

Polyuria → Polydipsia→ Polyphagia

what is polyuria?

dehydration due to excess urine production

what is polydipsia?

excessive thirst

what is polyphagia?

excessive hunger/ weight gain

Polyuria → Polydipsia→ Polyphagia (positive or negative feedback)

leads to more sugar in the blood (positive feedback)

how much blood is in the body

about 1.5 gallons

what are the functions of blood

distribution: nutrients, hormones, wastes

regulation of temperature and pH

protection: blood clots, immunity

what type of tissue is blood

connective tissue

what are the three components of connective tissue

1) formed elements (cells)

2) ground substance (fluid and dissolved molecules)

3) Proteins

bones have

huge amount of proteins

blood has

lots of cells and proteins

Albumins

Control movement of water in/out of blood

α,β, Globulins

Carry hormones, cholesterol, ions etc.

γ Globulins

Component of antibodies

Fibrinogen

Blood clots

Centrifuging

separates blood into layers

Plasma

55% of blood volume

• ground substance + proteins

Buffy coat

• <1%

• Contains WBCs and platelets

• formed elements

Red Blood Cells

• ~ 45%

• formed element

• red blood cell layers

erythrocytes are…

red blood cells

RBC function

Transport gases (Oxygen and Carbon dioxide)

hemoglobin carries both

Hematopoiesis

blood cell formation

Erythropoiesis

RBC formation

~ 2 million made / second

Red marrow

in medullary cavity of flat bones

where is red marrow in the capillaries

sinusoidal

most cells…

divide to from identical cells

stem cells…

divide to from different cells

Hemocytoblast divides to form…

Myeloid Progenitor

what does the myeloid progenitor divide to?

forms pro-erythroblast

Proerythroblast divides to produce

early erythroblast

What does early erythroblast produce?

a lot of ribosomes (makes proteins)

what does early erythroblast mature into

late erythroblasts

What do late erythroblasts have tons of?

hemoglobin

What does late erythroblast mature into

A reticulocyte

what does a reticulocyte eject?

the nucleus and most organelles (from hemoglobin buildup)

reticulocytes enter what

leaky capillaries (in red marrow)

what are sinusoidal capillaries

large fenestrations

What are fenestrations?

holes- big enough for cells to pass

how much are reticulocytes in your blood

about 2% if the RBC’s in your blood

what do reticulocytes mature into?

Mature RBC’s

What controls RBC's levels?

diet and hormones

erythropoietin

Produced by cells in the kidney

Increases the rate of maturation of RBCs ( through stimulating bone marrow)

what is the lifespan of RBC?

100-120 days

Spleen

captures RBC’s

macrophages capture, phagocytose, and break them down

Heme is broken apart (bilirubin still remains)

What is the bilirubin fate

secreted in bile and urine and ejected by being processes through the liver

what is stercobilin?

end product of bilirubin (breakdown of brown feces)

what is jaundice?

unable to clear it fast enough (too much RBC destruction)

Polycythemia

Abnormally high levels of RBCs (high hematocrit)

increase the viscosity of blood

not always bad; can be good for athletes

What is anemia

inability to carry proper amount of oxygen

what is aplastic anemia

erythropoiesis issue (bone marrow)

what is iron deficiency anemia

when low iron prevents the body from not making enough hemoglobin

what is pernicious anemia

B12 deficiency

formation of RBC’s

autoimmune disorder

what is Hemolytic anemia

Sickle cell anemia

heritable

abnormal amount of hemoglobin

causes “sickle” shaped RBC’s

Agglutination

Clumping of RBCs due to Antibody binding

who is the universal donor?

O-

what is the universal recipient

AB+

what are White blood cells?

involved in immune function

“never let monkeys eat bananas”

what is diapedesis

ability to enter and exit the vascular (blood vessels)

WBC’s in and out the blood capillaries