CHAPTER 1 - Research Methods

VCE Psych 3/4 - research methods

Scientific ideas

Based on empirical evidence: Information obtained through direct systematic observartion or experimentation.

• Provisionale claims

• systematic methodologies: experimentation, observation and hypotheses

• aim to be objective

Non-scientific ideas

ideas formed without empirical evidence or the use of scientific methods

• not verified through observation or experimentation

• non-objective

• are often based on anecdotes, opinions, intuitions

Theory

a proposition or set of principles that is used to explain something or make predictions about cause and effect

• Explain and predict

• Scientific research or logic

• e.g behaviourism

Model

a representation of a concept, process or behaviour often made to simplify or make something easier to understand

• Simplify and represent

• Scientific theories and ideas

Aim

statement outlining the purpose of the study

• includes IV & DV

• “The aim of this investigation is to measure the effect of IV on DV”

Hypothesis

A testable prediction of the relationship between two or more variables.

• IPAD (IV, Population, Approriate direction, DV)

• “It is hypothesized that Populaton who IV (Conditon 1) will appropriate direction DV, compared to those who IV (Condtion 2)”

Independent variable

The variable that is systematically manipulated (controlled, selected or changed) in some way by the researcher, and the variable that is assumed to have a direct effect on the DV.

• IV = Horizontal axis

• IV has an effect on DV

Dependent variable

a variable the researcher measures and is expected to change due to the manipulation of the IV.

• DV = vertical axis

Controlled variable

is a variable other than the IV that a researcher holds constant (controls) in an investigation. They are not part of the investigation itself - a controlled variable is neither the IV nor DV nor the same as a control group. They are kept constant to ensure the manipulation of the IV causes the changes in the DV.

• Ensures validity of the results

Extraneous variables

Any varibale that is not the IV but may affect the results (DV) of the research.

• Identified before a study - try account for them when planning

• Should be controlled, or therefore, affect the internal validity of the study.

Examples of Extraneous variables in a study

participant differences (such as amount/type of food they have eaten, whether they exercise regularly, medications), time of day when results are obtained, environment (temp, weather, time of day) they are in, order effects, experimenter effects, non-standardised instructions.

Confounding variables

is any variable other than the IV that has had an unwanted effect on the DV, making it impossible to determine which of the variables has produced the change in the DV.

• Become an issue after the study. Unaccounted for EV’s become CV’s

• Therefore, interfere with the internal validity of the investigation by providing alternative explanation for the results.

Controlled experiment

Are an experimental investigation of the relationship between variables and a dependent variable, controlling all other variables.

• Effect of IV on the DV is tested while aiming to control all other variables

• Tests a hypothesis

Experimental group

group of participants that are exposed to the independent variable (IV present). There can be more than one experimental group in an experiment.

Control group

group of participants that are not exposed to the independent variable (IV absent).

• Acts as a ‘standard’ to which performance of experimental group can be compared to: provides a baseline for comparison.

Within-subjects design

Participants comlete every condition of the experiment

Between-subjects design

participants are divided into groups and only complete one condition of the experiment

Mixed design

• Combines elements of both within-subjects and between-subjects designs

• can assess differences between two or more groups and change in the individual members over time

• can test the effect of multiple IV’s on a DV

Advantages of within

• Ensures the results of the expeirment are more likely due to the manipulation of the independent variable than any differences between participants that would occur if they were in seperate groups

• Less people are needed because each participant completes each experimental condition

• Good for real-world settings and phenomena, such as the impact of certain teaching methods (e.g. this could be assessed before with a pre-test and after with a post-test.)

Disadvantages of within

• can produce order effects: i.e. completing one experimental condition first then the other’s may influence how participants perform in the latter condition/s. (e.g. due to fatigue, practice, participant expectations, etc.)

• In addition, a participant dropping out of a within-subjects experiment has a greater impact on the study as the experimenter loses two data points instead of one.

Advantages of between

• May be less timeconsuming than within subjects design as different particiapnts can complete the different conditions simultaneously and procedures do not need to be repeated.

• Does not create order effects

Disadvantages of between

• May require more particiapnts than a within-subjects

• Differences between participants (participant differences) across groups can affect results (i.e. results may be due to the split of participants instead of the independent variable)

Advantages of mixed

• Allows experimenters to compare results both across experimental conditions and across individuals/participant/groups over time.

• Allows multiple experimental conditions to be compared to baseline control group.

Disadvantages of mixed

• Can be more costly and time-consuming to plant, conduct, and then analyse results.

• Demanding for researchers and assistants to be across multiple methods

Controlled experiments

An experimental investigation of the relationship between one or more independent variables and a dependent variable, controlling all other variables. This may include the use of control groups. Tests a hypothesis.

Advantages of controlled experiments

• Allow researchers to infer causal relationships between, and draw conclusions about specific variables.

• High level of control over conditions and variables.

• Can be repeated to check results.

• Allow researchers to test hypotheses more quickly than in real-world settings.

• Prevention of some extraneous and confounding variables.

Disadvantages of controlled experiments

• Often conducted in an artificial laboratory or highly controlled setting, the setting may not be reflective of real life. This may affect participants’ responses.

• Open to researcher error or ‘experimenter effects’.

• Can be time-consuming and expensive to manipulate and measure certain variables.

• Confounding or extraneous variables can still occur.

• Can be unethical/impossible to test (e.g. poverty, racism)

Case study

An in-depth/detailed investigation of a particular activity, behaviour, event or problem that contains a real or hypothetical situation and includes the complexities that would be encountered in the real world.

• Case studies can take various forms: historical, involving the analysis of causes and consequences, and discussion of knowledge learned from the situation; a real situation or a role-play of an imagined situation, where plausible recommendations are to be made; or problem-solving, where developing a new design, methodology or method is required.

Advantages of case studies

• Provide highly detailed, rich information about a particular phenomenon under study. This can also provide new knowledge about other phenomena and/or lead to research. e.g. studying brain trauma may inform us about brain function.

• Allow phenomena, including rare phenomena, to be examined in depth, which can provide ideas for future studies and hypotheses.

• Can incorporate other scientific methodologies to gain data.

Disadvantages of case studies

• Results cannot be generalised (applied) to a wider population, as case studies often only involve a small group of people or one person.

• Subject to researcher bias and errors, as often one or only a few researchers.

• Can be difficult to draw conclusions about cause and effect.

• Can be time-consuming.

Correlational studies

Planned observation and recording of events and behaviours that have not been manipulated or controlled to understand the relationships/associations that exist between variables, to identify which factors may be of greater importance and to make predictions.

When a controlled experiment is inappropriate or impractical. e.g violence, birth order, soldiers returning from conflict.

Advantages of correlational studies

• No manipulation of variables required.

• Can provide ideas for future research, as well as form the basis for theories.

• Can provide info about the relationships and associations between variables.

• Can be conducted in naturalistic settings, so findings are applicable to real work.

Disadvantages of correlational studies

• Cannot draw conclusions about cause and effect.

• Can be subject to the influence of extraneous variables.

• Correlation does not equal causation. e.g. ice cream sales and sunburn.

Classification and identification

Classification is the arrangement of phenomena, objects or events into manageable sets, whereas identification is a process of recognition of phenomena as belonging to particular sets or possibly being part of a new or unique set.

• e.g. labels/groups of Major Depressive Disorders

• e.g. appropriate behaviours for ages

Advantages of Classification and identification

• Provides a common language to communicate about scientific phenomena.

• Helps to simplify, explain and describe complex terms.

• Allows scientists to form more targeted solutions or interventions to problems.

• Allows researchers to form theories and hypotheses about labelled phenomena.

Disadvantages of classification and indentification

• Can over-simplify reality.

• Labels and language can be inaccurate and create bias.

Fieldwork

Based on inquiry or the investigation of an issue, fieldwork involves observing and interacting with a selected environment beyond the classroom, usually to determine correlation, rather than a causal relationship. It may be conducted through a range of methods, including direct qualitative and/or quantitative observations and sampling, participant observation, qualitative interviews, questionnaires, focus groups and yarning circles.

Advantages of fieldwork

• Can be conducted in naturalistic settings; findings are more applicable to the real world. High ecological validity.

• Provides rich, detailed data.

• Can use a broad range of different methodologies

• Can occur over a longer time period, therefore can uncover information that may not be immediately obvious to researchers and participants.

Disadvantages of fieldwork

• Time-consuming/expensive to conduct and record data.

• Generally cannot draw conclusions about cause and effect.

• Due to lengthy procedures in a real-world setting, it is difficult to replicate in order to verify the results.

• Difficult to control the environment and extraneous variables, as researchers do not manipulate variables

Literature review

Involes the collation and anaylsis of secondary data related to other people’s scientific findings and or viewpoints in order to answer a question or porvide background information to help explain observed events, or as prepatation for an investigation to generate primary data.

Advantages of a literature review

• Provides background info on specific phenomena that can inform new studies and hypotheses.

• Allows researchers to understand the current ‘state of play’ for a specific object of inquiry & answer questions.

• May uncover patterns of knowledge or gaps

Disadvantages of literature reviews

• May be time-consuming

• May be difficult to do if little research has been done on a topic

• Selection bias of studies

Product, process or system development

Design or evaluation of an artefact, process or system to meet a human need, which may involve technological applications in addition to scientific knowledge and procedures.

• e.g. meditation app

Advantages of product, process or system development

• creates products, processes and systems that may meet a human need.

Disadvantages of product, process or system development

• Can be time consuming and expensive.

Simulation

A process of using a model to study the behaviour of a real or theoretical system. The modelling and manipulation of variables in a real system is useful because often the variables cannot be controlled as the system may be too complex, too large or small, too fast or slow, not accessible or too dangerous. *The real environment is not available.

• e.g. pilots, astronauts

Advantages of a simulation

• Provides insight into potential circumstances and events.

• Allows researchers to view hard-to see phenomena, such as neurons, in detail.

• It allows researchers to see events that might otherwise be too time-consuming, dangerous, unethical or impractical to see in reality.

Disadvantages of a simulation

• Can be time-consuming and expensive

• Subject to programming and human error so may not always be an accurate prediction or reflection of reality

• Artificial and lacks realism therefore participants can behave differently (difficult to generalise)

Sampling

The process of selecting participants from the population for a research study

Population

Is the larger group from which a sample is selected and to which the researcer will seek to apply (generalise) the results.

Sample

A group that is subset or part of a larger group chosen to be studied for research purposes.

• To make the results generalisable (applied to the wider population), the sample should be highly representative of the population.

Random sampling

Every member of the population has an equal chance of being selected as a participant for a study

Advantages of random sampling

• sample is likely to be somewhat represenative of the target population, especially if it is a large sample.

• Time-effective and cost-effective compared to stratified sampling.

• Improves external validity

Disadvantages of random sampling

• May not be represenative of the population (Biased sample), especially if a small sample is used.

• Can be time consuming and difficult - must obtain names of every member of the population

• Reduces external validity (if small sample size)

Stratified sampling

dividing population of interest into subgroups (strata), then selecting a separate sample from each stratum, in the same proportions as they occur in the population of interest.

Advantages of stratified sampling

• Useful when studying factors that vary greatly among different subgroups of a population

• Allows easy coparison between specific groups

• Easier to generalise

• Produces the most representative sample

Disadvantages of stratified sampling

• Mor time consuming and expensive than random sampling

• Difficult to determine the most approrpiate strate (subgroup) to focus on.

Convenience sampling

any sampling technique that involves selecting readily available members of the population, rather than using a random or systematic approach

Advantages of convenience sampling

• Time efficient

• cost-effective

Disadvantages of convenience sampling

• not likely to be representative of the population

• Bias in sampling

• limits external validity

Primary data

Data collected directly by the researcher for their own purpose, usually to test a hypothesis

• Fieldwork, lab setting, classroom experiments, raw data, observations, surveys

Secondary data

Data that is obtained from other people’s research

• More readily avalible than primary data

• Not always exactly what you may need

• E.g. data sources from the internet or journal articles.

Objective data

Factual data that is observed and measured independently of personal opinion.

• involve the use of measurement tools that ensure the same results are obtained by different researchers (reliable)

• e.g. weight, heart rate, intelligence scores, brain wave patterns, standardised moot test

Subjective data

Data that is informed by personal opinion, perception or interpretation

• Less reliable, less accurate and difficult to interpret

• e.g Self-reports, open ended questions, memory of events.

Qualitative data

Information about the qualities or characters about what is being studied

• Non-numerical.

• e.g. desprictions, words, meaning, pictures, open-ended questions, interviews

Quantitative data

Numerical information on the quantity or amount of what is being studied.

• Easy to summarise and interpret.

• E.g. numbers, percentages, mean, rating scales

Percentage change

determine how much participant’s results have increased/decreased/differed either between conditions or over time.

• Percentage change = old number - new number / old number x 100

Standard deviation

is a measure of the spread of variation in data around the mean.

• A low standard deviation indicates that there is little variation in the scores and that most scores are clustered around the mean. In this case, the mean is a representative descriptive statistic.

• A high standard deviation indicates that there is a large amount of variation among the scores and most scores are not clustered around the mean.

Graph axes

• Horizontal axis = x-axis

• Vertical axis = y-axis

Accuracy

The accuracy of a measurement relates to how close it is to the true value of the quantity being measured.

• Accuracy may be described as ‘more accurate’ or ‘less accurate’

• if a quantity could be measured with perfect accuracy, then we would find its true value.

True value

as the value, or range of values, that would be found if the quantity could be measured perfectly.

Precision

Refers to how closely a set of measurement values agrees with eachother. Precision is an indication of how close the measurements are to the true value.

Systematic errors

Are the errors in data that differ from the true value by a consistent amount each time a measurement is made.

• Affect the accuracy of a study

Reducing systematic errors

Be familar with the measurement tool and have experience with it. Repeating measurements will not improve systematic errors. They are (usually) consistent, and foreseeable.

Random errors

Errors in data that are unsystematic and occur due to chance.

• They are unforeseeable.

• Random errors affect the PRECISION of a measurement tool.

Reducing random errors

Repeat measurements, increase sample size, and or refine the measurement method or technique, calibrating measurement tools.

Personal errors

Include mistakes, miscalulations and observer errors when conducting research.

• If personal errors occur, the experiment should be repeated correctly.

Uncertainty

refers to the lack of exact knowledge relating to something being measured due to otential sources of variation in knowledge.

Repeatability

Refers to the extent to which the results obtained from a research study are consistent, dependable and stable over time when repeated under the exact same conditions.

• To assess repeatability the research should be repeated under the same conditions, using the same measurement procedure, the same observer, the same measuring instrument, the same location and repeated over a short period of time.

Reproducibility

Refers to the extent to whicb the results obtained from a research study are consistent, dependable and stable over time when repeated under different conditons.

• To assess reproducibility, the research should be repeated in different conditions, using different measurement procedure, a different observer, different measuring instruments, different location, and different cultures.

Internal validity

refers to the extent to which the research actually investigates what it sets out and/or claims to investigate. *inside the present study

• Lack of internal validity implies that the results of the study are not accurate and therefore no conclusions can be drawn.

External validity

refers to the extent to which the results of an investigation can be applied to similar individuals in different settings. *Beyond the study

• Lack of external validity that the results of the research may not apply to individuals who are different from the study population. However, a conclusion can be drawn.

• To increase external validity: use broad inclusion criteria (e.g. have a diverse range of people in the sample), use sampling techniques that result in a sample that is representative of the overall general human population, and use a large sample size.

Ethical concepts

refer to the broad, moral guiding principles that people should consider when conducting research, practising psychology, or when analysing a psychological issue or debate.

Beneficence

Refers to the commitment to maximising benefits and minimising the risls and harms involoved in taking a particualr position or course of action

• Consider:

  • Whether the research design minimises harm

  • Where harm is necassary part of the research, it is outweighed by the merits (benefits) of the study

Integrity

Is the commitment to searching for knowledge and understanding, and the honest reporting all sources of information and results, whether favourable or unfavourable, in ways that permit scrutiny and contribute to public knowledge and understanding

• Consider:

  • Objectice and open reporting and recording of results

  • Processes of peer review

  • Throughness of any literature review and other research procedures

Justice

In research is the moral obligation to ensure that there is fair consideration of competing claims; that there is no unfair burden on a particualr group from an action; and that there is fair distribution and access to the benefits of an action

• Consider:

  • Objectivity in evaluating results

  • Ensuring the research design and suggestions on the basis of conclusions are not discriminatory against certain groups

  • ensuring psychological practice does not stereotype or discriminate

Non-maleficence

Is the principle of avoiding causing harm. However, as a position or course of action may involve some degree of harm, the concept of non-maleficence implies that the harm resulting from any position or course of action should not be disproportionate to the benefits from any position or course of action.

• Consider:

  • Designing research to minimise psychological and physical harm

  • Participants’ welfare

Respect

Involves consideration of the extent to which living things have an intrinsic value and/or instrumental value; giving due regard to the welfare, liberty and autonomy, beliefs, perceptions, customs and cultural heritage of both the individual and the collective; consideration of the capacity of living things to make their own decisions; and when living things have diminished capacity to make their own decisions, ensuring that they are empowered where possible and protected as necessary.

• Consider:

  • Respect for and consideration o welfare of human and non-human research participants

  • protection of participants’ autonomy

Ethical guidelines

are procedures and principles used to ensure participants are safe and respected.

• Written in a rulebook

• Ethics commitee must aprove the investigation

Confidentiality

Confidentiality refers to the privacy, protection and security of a participant’s personal information in terms of personal details and the anonymity of individual results, including the removal of identifying elements.

• Applies before, during and after the experiment.

Voluntary participation

Ensures that there is no coercion of or pressure put on the participant to partake in an experiment, and they freely choose to be involved.

• Occurs at the beginning of the experiment.

Informal consent procedures

Ensure participants understand the nature and purpose of the experiment, including potential risks (both physical and psychological), before agreeing to participate in the study. Voluntary written consent should be obtained by the experimenter and if participants are unable to give this consent, then a parent or legal guardian should provide this.

Withdrawal rights

The researcher must inform participants before the study that they are free to participate or to decline to participate or to withdraw from the research. Participants must be able to discontinue their involvement in an experiment at any time during or after the conclusion of an experiment, without penalty. This may include the removal of the participant’s results from the study after the study has been completed.

Debreifing

Ensures that, at the end of the experiment, the participant leaves understanding the experimental aim, results and conclusions. Any participant questions are addressed, and support is also provided to ensure there is no lasting harm from their involvement in the study. Debriefing is essential for all studies that involve deception.

Deception

Deception occurs when a participant is not fully informed about the true purpose of the study before the commencement of the study. At times this is essential to avoid influencing a person’s thoughts, feelings or behaviours during the experiment. The use of deception is discouraged in psychological research and used only when necessary.

• IF DECEPTION IS USED IN PSYCHOLOGICAL RESEARCH, DEBRIEFING MUST OCCUR.