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Social Cognition
the study of how people make sense of other people and themselves. Focuses on how ordinary people think and feel about people and themselves
Phenomenology
to describe systematically how ordinary people say they experience their world
Elemental tradition
viewing concepts as “elements” of a psychological periodic table, you can form bonds between “elements” much like chemistry equations
“breaks scientific problems down into pieces and analyzes the pieces in separate detail before combining them”
focus on the expert’s ability to break the whole into pieces
Configural model
many factors combine to arrive at an impression of someone, factors adapt to the impression to maintain unity
“hypothesizes that people form a unified overall impression of other people. The unifying forces shape individual elements to bring them in line with the overall impression. “
“The pressure toward unity changes the meaning of the individual elements to fit better in context”
People change the meaning of ambiguous words (ie: intelligent) but also manage to combine opposite traits with clear conclusions (ie: “someone brilliant and bumbling might be an absent-minded genius”)
“Perceivers’ mental activity results in an impression made up of traits and their relationships”
Algebraic Model
factors are additive, each factor is independent, and a survey of the factors helps a person arrive at an impression
“takes each individual trait, evaluates it in isolation, and combines the evaluations into a summary evaluation
Combining the person's pros and cons to form an impression
The Holistic Approach
“analyzes the pieces in the context of other pieces and focuses on the entire configuration of relationships among them”
Gestalt psychology:
Psyc that uses Gestalt principles “first describe the phenomenon of interest, the immediate experience of perception, without analysis” (aka: phenomenology)
“Focuses on systematically describing people’s experience of perceiving and thinking”
Gesalts focus on people’s experience of dynamic wholes
Psychological field
an individual’s perception of the influence of the environment
In order to predict an outcome, we must know about all of a person’s _______ _______
Person in the situation
Cognition and motivation
Different “forces” act on a person and these “forces” dynamically contribute to the outcome
Consistency seeker
The needed to avoid or get rid of cognitive dissonance by justifying the inconsistencies between morals and behavior
Naïve scientist
Covariation model of attribution to determine source of another’s behavior
Is the person's behavior due to the situation or their personality
Cognitive miser
Heuristics used to make decision
Motivated tactician
Dual-process models: moral judgments are the result of two competing processes: a fast, automatic, affect-driven process and a slow, deliberative, reason-based process.
Activated actor
Implicit associations: Associations that affect our choices and decisions are the result of both conscious and unconscious mental processes.
Automatic Processing
Happens quickly
More efficient
Is unconscious/uncontrollable
e.g: priming
Priming
Setting a person up to respond more quickly or strongly to certain stimuli by exposing them to another related stimulus first
Semantic: ____ words
works and is well researched
Subliminal: recently controversial bc of applicability issues
Proceduralization (chronic accessibility)
the process of the practicing an effortful skill that eventually becomes automatic
Can do something automatically because you’ve done it so many times (e.g: riding a bike)
Goal-Dependent Automaticity
Process of achieving a goal done without conscious thought about:
How to accomplish the goal
potential outcomes
Sometimes can be unconcious as well
e.g: doing something out of habit
Goal-Inconsistent Automaticity
Automatic processing not in-line or counter to one’s goal
doing something you really didn’t want to do but the action is automatic
Thought suppression
tends to rebound
Rebound- thoughts come back strongly
Ruminations
What thought suppression aims to suppress
Repetitive, counter-productive, unintentional thoughts potentially regarding a goal
Studied in social and clinical psychological research
stereotype threat → ___ over success and stereotype → does poorly
Controlled processing
Intent –
making a choice among various options
making the hard choice among various options
paying attention to examples of thought or choice a person wants
Consciousness –
thoughts, emotional experiences, body sensations that can compete with the external world
Stimulus Dependent (type of thought)
thought related to something in the environment
paying attention to the stimulus around you
Stimulus Independent (type of thought)
thoughts unrelated to something in the environment
e.g: daydreaming
Operant thought (type of thought)
instrumental or problem-solving thought
e.g: how do I solve this problem?
Respondent thought (type of thought)
distractions, daydreaming, thoughts without real goals
______ thoughts are stimulus independent
Experience sampling (method for studying thoughts)
periodically prompting participants to report their current thought as they go about their day
surveys, “people in the wild”
Random probes (method for studying thoughts)
similar to experience sampling but done in the lab while completing a task
in a lab setting
Think aloud (method for studying thoughts)
having participants voice their thoughts as they read information
participant reads or watches something and “reports their consciousness”
Naturalistic social cognition (Method for studying thoughts)
participants are unknowingly filmed interacting with someone, then, after consenting, watch the video and report what they were thinking
Role-play participation
imagine self in a scenario and report thoughts and reactions
Belonging (motivations)
a need for a group
Understanding (motivations)
sharing beliefs or believing to share beliefs with one’s group
we have a lot of automatic thoughts about this → we assume people think like us
Controlling (motivations)
attempting to influence outcomes that are dependent on others
when someone has power they think less about the people around them in comparison to those without power
Self-enhancement (motivations)
Want to see oneself positively
desire to maintain or increase one’s positive views of oneself, to make oneself feel good
Trust (motivations)
having positive feelings toward a group or individual and confidence in the decisions they make for the group
breaking of trust → hard to build back up
Person perception (dual-mode processing uses)
impressions of another person
Self perception (dual-mode processing uses)
impressions of oneself
Attributions (dual-mode processing uses)
cause of behavior
Inferences (dual-mode processing uses)
guesses or conclusions as to why something happened
Attitudes (dual-mode processing uses)
feelings, affect
Attention
Focus and effort of focus (conscious)
can be in relation to external or internal stimuli
Helps in encoding, but not necessary for encoding
Encoding
Forming memories
Mentally representing external stimuli
First step in processing stimuli to interpret and form memories
Information that is being encoded is altered, sometimes discarded, misperceived, combined with inferences before becoming memory
may cause false memories
Processing faces
People are sensitive to others’ gaze
▪ Another’s gaze can be a guide to focus one’s attention
▪ People pay the most attention to the eyes of other humans (Quadflieg et al., 2004; Simpson et al., 2020)
Facial perception is a complex neurological process
▪ The process is global and gestalt
▪ When the focus on a person’s uniqueness, the process
is most global, right hemisphere (Mason & Macrae, 2004)
▪ When categorizing people (ex. by gender, race) the process is focused on salient cues (ex. hair, skin color), left hemisphere (Mason & Macrae, 2004)
Facial features have been found to relate to specific traits
Facial expression can make faces more memorable
People infer traits from a face
Salience
Being notably different from the environment around a person or object, standing out
Can be due to:
Physical features of the stimuli are notable
Location
How much time is given to the stimuli
Stimuli that counter prior knowledge
The ability of the stimuli to help one achieve a goal
Extremely positive or negative stimuli are more ____
Often people find negative stimuli more ____ than positive stimuli
Can lead to perceptions of causality
Can lead to more extreme evaluations
Needs context to work
Vividness
Inherently emotionally interesting
inherently image-provoking
proximate
Does not improve memory or persuasion
can inhibit persuasion
Is entertaining/get one’s attention
there is no comparison component (does not need context)
Accessibility
How easily information is retrieved
because of recency
because of frequency
Priming can facilitate _____
Short-term Memory
Information that can be easily recalled
▪ Limited capacity for information
▪ is currently called working memory
Long-term Memory
Information that can be remembered indefinitely
▪ May be difficult to bring information from long-term
memory to mind
Intermediate Memory
Blurry line between short- and long-term memory
▪ It is not always possible to classify information as coming from short-term or long-term memory
Associative Network Model
Memory starts with a point of activation (Node)
▪ Spreads to other nodes associated with that memory
▪ More associations the more enhanced the memory
becomes
▪ The nodes and links are remembered together
▪ The more links and nodes the more paths to the
memory – retrieval routes
Person Memory Models
Person memory (Hastie, 1998)
▪ Extra attention given to impression-inconsistent stimuli - Pay more attention when something feels off
▪ Extra attention results inconsistency advantage
▪ When making links, information is held in shortterm memory
▪ The information gathered results in an impression of a person
Person memory (Srull & Wyer, 1989)
▪ Inconsistent information → stronger impressions
▪ Minimum number of inconsistent behaviors required to be noticed
▪ Primacy effect
▪ A mix of inco nsistent and consistent stimuli makes less likely that an impression will change
▪ Distractions when receiving inconsistent information will also interfere
Inconsistency Advantage Absence
Forming impressions of multiple traits
Multitasking
Experiencing big cognitive load/ selective memory
Making a complex judgement
Expectancies are well-established
Forming impressions of groups
Twofold Retrieval by Associative Pathways (TRAP) Model
Similar to the dual mode models of cognition
▪ Effortful recall favors inconsistent information
▪ Frequency recall favors consistent information - easier to remember when something is consistent
Associated Systems Theory
Maintains 4 systems eventually intertwine to form abstract impressions:
▪ Visual System
▪ Verbal/semantic System
▪ Affective System
▪ Action System
Procedural Memory
Memory of how to do something
▪ More automatic recall
▪ Involves condition/action pairs
▪ Together, these pairs form productions
▪ Implicit associations can be considered procedural
Declarative Memory
Memory of concepts
▪ Includes episodic and semantic memories
▪ Recall speed is a function of general usefulness and
current relevancy
▪ More commonly used in social cognitive research
ParaIlel Models
activating many memory pathways at once
Serial Models
procedural process of encoding, retrieval, and response
Parallel Distributed Processing Model
Memory is stored in patterns
▪ Links are important
▪ Constraint satisfaction model – considers all stimuli and existing knowledge to form impressions
▪ Connectionist models – focuses on the strength of links
→ Some links may be stronger than others due to sentimental meaning or repetition
Embodied Memory
▪ Perceptual symbols – encoded external and internal experiences
▪ External experiences includes environmental stimuli (ex. color, heat)
▪ Internal experiences include how a person feels in their body (ex. hot, tired, etc.) and introspection
▪ Symbols organize to form simulations
▪ Frames are existing schemas that simulations are built on
Social Categories
Socially constructed ways people are categorized
Category definitions and boundaries change over time
Ex: race differs between how the US sees it vs Europe
Examples of non-social categories: people who like reading
These definitions can benefit and disadvantage different groups of people
People view certain groups as “less” to feel more powerful
Every person has multiple category memberships, between and within categories
Essentialism
Lay theory used to think about categories of natural kinds, including social categories
Lay theory: A collection of lay people’s knowledge, explanations, and attitudes toward a particular idea”; implicit theories
This theory is not an accurate
A category has an inherent essence resulting in beliefs about categories and identities within them
Endorsement of _______ beliefs can vary by:
Age
Culture
Social category
Relates to prejudice
Prototype (social categories)
an abstract representation of the average traits of a group member
Exemplar (social categories)
real group members that are perceived to represent the group, can have several ___________ as examples of a group
Self-perceptions (social self)
self-knowledge, how a person thinks about themselves
Self-schemas (social self)
Beliefs a person has about themselves in general and in specific situations based on past experiences
Influenced by others and environment
Can be inaccurate, in ways that are self-serving or not
Reflected self-appraisals (social self)
evaluated oneself based on how the individual thinks others perceive them
perception of yourself based on what you think others think of you
Working self-concept (social self)
evaluating oneself in a particular situation
One’s self-concept can vary by situation
The 3 Selves
Individual – The concept of self related to one’s specific traits
Relational – The concept of self activated by significant others
Transference – the activation of the mental representation of self related to the significant others
Collective – The concept of self activated by group membership
Social Identity Complexity
Everyone has multiple identities
Some identities overlap
Some identities are orthogonal
the two systems do not interact or influence each other
Intersectional (identity representation)
Think of a Venn diagram
Only the center circle counts
e.g: Christian White women (3 identities, but must have all 3)
Dominant (identity representation)
The identity you view to be the most prominent
e.g: Some Women who see themselves as mothers first
Compartmentalized (identity representation)
Identity changes based on context
e.g: Accountant at work, father at home
Merger (identity representation)
Back to the Venn diagram - includes ALL circles
e.g: I hang out with queer people; some may be trans men, some may be bi, etc.
Social comparison theory
People compare themselves to others
People chose to compare themselves to others who are similar to them
Affects self-esteem – the overall positive or negative perception one has of themselves
Can lead to competitiveness
In certain social contexts like the workplace, external social comparison may
Affect perceptions of fairness
Encourage zero-sum thinking
Affect wellbeing
Upward comparisons (Social comparison theory)
comparing oneself to a person who is perceived as better
usually results in low self-esteem
Downward comparisons (Social comparison theory)
comparing oneself to a person who is perceived as not as good
usually results in high self-esteem
Contingencies of self-worth (self-evaluations)
theory that self-esteem is based on the successes and failures one has in the domains most important to them
Sociometer hypothesis (self-evaluations)
theory that self-esteem is based on one’s beliefs about how others appraise them measured if one is included or excluded by others
Orth et al., 2018: level of self-esteem increases the most from about 15-30, and stays somewhat the same from then on.
Better-than-average effect (self-enhancement)
the belief that one is better than most on traits or in respect to abilities
Self-affirmation theory (self-enhancement)
after a threat to self-worth, a person focuses on the traits or skills they value about themselves unrelated to the threat
Doesn’t have to be related to the task (ex: “I failed this test, but I helped my mom with dinner this whole week”
Self-verification theory (self-evaluate)
because one wants a consistent, predictable and coherent view of oneself, they strive for stable and subjectively accurate beliefs about themselves
Self Evaluation Theory
We concern ourselves more with behavior of close other (ex. friends, family, coworkers) as opposed to distant others (ex. famous people, the president)
Our emotional response to the behavior of close others is determined by how much the behavior relates to us
If the person is close to us but better at the behavior than you (and its “your thing”), we feel jealous. But if we aren’t good at it, we feel proud of them
Terror Management Theory
We are motivated by the fear of death, people don’t want to die and want to leave legacy behind when they do die
Fear of death motivates individual behaviors and ‘cultural worldview’
Cultural worldview relates to self-esteem by considering how much a person contributes to their society and are important members of that society
Theory posits that if mortality to made silent, then people:
Endorse their worldviews more
Are more willing to support violence to protect their worldview
Recent studies do not find support for the theory
Self-regulation
Changing or controlling behavior to achieve a goal
Self-discrepancy theory
a person has 3 selves
Actual self – the self one believes they are
Ideal self – the self a person wants to be
Ought self – the self concerned with obligations and demands
The ideal and ought self motivate a person to self-regulate
When these selves are at odds a person may feel agitated, anxious, and guilt
Promotion focus (self-regulation)
regulating behavior to achieve ideal self-goals
Focus on positive outcomes
Usually involved with ideal self
Prevention focus (self-regulation)
regulating behavior to achieve the ought self-goals
Focus on avoiding negative outcomes
Usually involved with ought self
Ex: having to be a good daughter & go home to do chores
Behavior Activation System
Motivated to achieve goals
Give full effort when achieving a goal
When good things are happening, people are more likely to be in this state
Behavior Inhibition System
Motivated to avoid issues
Spend time worrying, trying to avoid unpleasantness
When bad things are happening, people more likely to be in this state
Self-focus
Regulation depends on self-attention
Cybernetic Theory of Self-Regulation
A feedback process to monitor how closely one is to achieving a standard
A person determines whether or not they achieve the standard, and then attempts to either change their behavior or give up
Self-conscious emotions (self-control)
long-term perspective; emotions concerned with perceptions of the person by others or that person
Can relate to pride/embarrassment
Hedonic emotions (self-control)
short-term perspective, emotions concerned with immediate pleasure
Can relate to fun or disappointment
Self Projection
Assumptions that our traits, preferences, problems, activities, emotions, and attitudes are commonly held
Can happen even when:
There is time to think
A person receives accuracy feedback about assumptions
When they have relevant info about others
Self-presentation
representing oneself as the person they want people to believe they are
Self-monitoring (self-presentation)
monitoring one's behavior and adapting it to fit the situation
Self-handicapping (self-presentation)
engaging in self-destructive behavior to save face in public
Ex: getting drunk the night before an exam, so you can blame being hungover when you fail
Humblebrag (self-presentation)
complimenting oneself but masking it with:
Humility
Complaint
Studies show:
When people want:
Sympathy, they complain
To impress, they brag
Sympathy and to impress! They _______
_________ results in people thinking the __________ is less likable and less competent than a person who just brags by hedging the brag
People believe that __________ helps garner sympathy and impress the listener
________ does not result in more likeability and competence than bragging
Listeners perceive the __________ to be less sincere
Listeners are usually our friends
Casual Attributions
cause and effect
Disposition - due to how the person is
Situation - due to the situation the person is in
Can be done with automatic or controlled processing
Cause and effect (Principles of Causation)
“Something HAD to make that happen”
Temporal contiguity (Principles of Causation)
Considering when it happened
Ex: spill on kitchen floor, and Joey was just in kitchen, and spill wasn’t there before Joey was in there, so Joey did it
Spatial contiguity (Principles of Causation)
Considering where it happened (sometimes when too)