geography essay plans

assess the role of trade blocs in contributing to the growth of both the global economy and national economies ( 12 marks)

introduction - define trade blocs
- globalisation = rise in countries forming economic alliances to foster growth

paragraph 1:
- trade liberalisation
- increases competition, encouraging business efficiency
- lower costs = more consumer activity = reinvested into economy
- however, protects domestic suppliers from very efficient Chinese imports), which can discourage businesses from becoming more efficient = lower economic productivity
- UK still traded with China as a member of the EU and also tried to leave in order to gain economic sovereignty - perhaps trade bloc was hampering growth

paragraph 2:
- country can specialise in manufacturing and exporting a certain product/industry
- economies of scale = economic productivity
- may hamper economic development of countries excluded from these blocs have to pay high tariffs to import goods into trade blocs - inhibits their growth
- may stop global trade growth if groups of countries isolate themselves
- could be argued that countries outside trade blocs may provide economic investment to get access ( Japan into UK)

conclusion
- trade blocs strengthen trading within the bloc but this has negative economic consequences for those outside the bloc

assess the view that globalisation inevitably damages the physical environment ( 12 marks)

introduction - define globalisation
- concerns about environmental exploitation and effects on ecosystems

paragraph 1:
- global production networks lengthen transport networks = vehicle pollution
- reduces air quality, respiratory health
- heavy industry in Asia due to global shift = increase in combustion of fossil fuels
- enhanced greenhouse effect + global warming
- global warming extends beyond national borders
- destruction of ecosystems e.g. deforestation to make space for infrastructure
- loss of biodiversity, water contamination and resource depletion
- countries where economic growth takes precedence ( emerging economies) = unsustainable resource use e.g. once productive land becomes unusable

paragraph 2:
- globalisation and economic growth has allowed some mature developed economies to invest in environmental policy
- even some developing countries = ecotourism
- research and development of radical technologies like carbon capture storage
- renewable energies
- global discussions on the effects of climate change + political strategy
- global environmental concern disseminated via social media - sustainability, slow fashion become norm

conclusion - in many ways globalisation has accelerated environmental exploitation and the damage to ecosystems however this pattern is not the same for every country as some mature from heavy industry

assess the impacts of rural-urban migration on the wellbeing of people in cities in developing countries (12 marks)

introduction - define rural to urban migration
- push and pull factors
- mixed effects

paragraph 1:
increased wellbeing = generate economic growth by spending in local services - positive multiplier effect
businesses gain workers willing to do unpopular jobs at unsociable hours - can remain productive
access to better quality infrastructure, transport, education and health services
- Mumbai

paragraph 2:
- decreased wellbeing: overcrowding and unplanned settlements
- may end up in slums as a first generation migrant = lack of access to sanitation and water
- influx of migrants = pressure on services which makes them less efficient
- higher demand for resources = unsustainable
- more people = more electricity use, more vehicle emissions = higher pollution levels decreasing health

conclusion - many potential benefits relative to rural but they come with inevitable challenges of uncontrolled population rates of developing countries

assess the main factors that have accelerated globalisation ( 12 marks)

introduction - define globalisation
- interaction of processes, attitudes and institutions that have contributed to speeding up the process

paragraph 1:
- technology innovations have fostered growth of global trade
- containerisation has encouraged business productivity
- also important due to the flow of information between states e.g. global banking - currency exchange
- at an individual level, technology has allowed people from across the world to communicate
- westernisation

paragraph 2:
- government attitudes to economic policy
- neoliberalism
- special economic zones, FDI
- joining trade blocs and international organisations to foster global economic cooperation

paragraph 3:
- TNC's have ability to influence economic and political policy of countries that want investment
- GPN = increase in global trade networks
- participation of emerging countries in manufacturing = global shift


conclusion - technology the most significant factor as it underpins the ability for trade and national governments to cooperate
- TNC's cannot form GPN without technology
- governments cannot communicate with other governments without technology

assess the extent to which improvements in gender equality may lead to higher national incomes per capita

introduction - define gender equality
- varies between countries and can be measured through different indexes ( fertility, wage gap)
- may have economic benefits

paragraph 1:
( refer to evidence)
- women being able to work at equal levels to men including managerial roles and political positions will generate more employment
- can bring more skills and innovation to the workplace
- TNC's could need women at managerial positions if target consumers are women - could allow TNC growth
- narrowing the gender pay gap - women should receive equal salaries to men in managerial and professional occupations = a higher proportion of women have disposable income to invest in the economy

paragraph 2:
- could improve demographics of an ageing population
- gender equality is associated with higher fertility rates = larger population that can be at a working age
- increase in long term labour supply
- wider engagement in international action due to gender equality
- vast gender inequality can isolate countries from trade and alliance with other countries, limiting TNC's and investment
- however, sometimes countries have been able to excel regardless of gender inequality because they have strategic resources e.g. the middle east ( sharia law), still have great trading with others due to their resources = there are times in which that moral authority can be ignored

conclusion : while it would be extremely beneficial for many countries to adopt gender equality policies for economic growth, the degree of effectiveness relies on their position and resources.

Assess the impact of TNCs (transnational corporations) on creating both winners and losers for people and environments ( 12 marks)

introduction - define TNC
- economic and political dominance across trade has benefits and costs at local and global levels

paragraph 1:
- increased business efficiency through reduced labour costs in emerging countries
- cheaper prices attract consumers + allow internal economic growth = shareholder value increase
- employment generation for people in emerging/developing countries = rise in quality of life and rise of the middle class ( China)
- however lack of regulation in supply chains often means exploitation ( sweatshop workers) who suffer dangerous working conditions and long hours
- economic spill - profits from TNC leak back to hq country

paragraph 2:
- heavy manufacturing industry releases air pollution, water contamination
- deforestation to clear land for factories
- unsustainable use of resources to fulfil manufacturing processes
- vehicle emissions from more transport
- ecosystem destruction, poor health of citizens, loss of productive land
- contribution to global warming = extends beyond national borders
- growth in trend of sustainability = may invest in greener methods of production to maintain consumer reputation ( this is not very significant however)
- may help the built environment in manufacturing countries as TNC's invest in infrastructure e.g. bridges, rail, roads

conclusion - most winners are produced in developed countries at the expense of exploited workers and environment in developing or emerging countries.

Assess the extent to which cultural diffusion caused by globalisation inevitably leads to social and political tension (12 marks).

introduction - mixing and clashing of cultures due to globalisation and migration has served as an impetus for friction between certain social groups
- on a historical scale and contemporary scale
- also instances of positive cultural diffusion

paragraph 1:
- influx of immigrants into the UK following conflict in middle east = rise in resistance to cultural diffusion
- nationalist ideology and racism
- rise in Europe extremism + political parties like UKIP
- BREXIT (2nd most common reason for voting leave was to reduce immigration)
- political tensions between leave and remain voters
- divisive
- informal segregation between white majority and migrants ( ethnic enclaves) increases tension
- views that migration puts too much pressure on services and migrants are 'taking jobs' - personal perceptions drive extremism and social tension
- sudden influx of migrants concentrated in specific regions may cause the most tensions

paragraph 2:
- instances where cultural diffusion has increased social cohesion
- trading of goods, people and religion
- ability of people to connect through social media all over the world has increased the tolerance to other languages, religions and cultures
- multicultural leisure e.g. Chinese/Indian cuisine is very popular in UK
- global events such as the world cup, Olympics, has in some cases decreased tension by cultural unity over a universal sport
- however, this is not as significant because people still enjoy the benefits of other cultures without fully accepting the culture

conclusion - there is inevitable tension especially as many older groups in society still carry nationalist views
- the youth especially are using online means of cultural diffusion to educate themselves and others on acceptance

Assess the role of international migration in the globalised economy ( 12 marks)

introduction - international migration has increased due to globalisation and serves a range of political, economic and social roles that facilitate development

paragraph 1:
- migrants improve the demographics of mature developed countries by increasing the working age population
- helps increase economic output which fosters growth
- helps fill skill shortages - strong presence in construction, trade and private household services
- expansion of labour pool = productivity + human capital
- introducing new skills for innovation
- spending in local services and providing taxes also contributes to a country's capacity to invest in services
- setting up new cultural business opens up a new market to bring in income and raise GDP

paragraph 2:
- remittances sent from migrants back to their home country to support families
- has a role in increasing flows of money and movement from developing countries
- remittances contribute to development in developing countries
- improved health and educational outcomes
- these countries are then more capable of participating in global affairs

conclusion - a country's openness to migration will allow it to develop economically through an enlarged workforce. This will underpin social and environmental development.

Assess the contribution of globalisation to cultural diffusion ( 12 marks)

introduction - define cultural diffusion
an inevitable outcome of globalisation is the mixing of cultures as international flows increase

paragraph 1:
- globalisation has allowed TNC's to gain international markets
- TNC's promote uniform brand of products
- in this way, westernised culture is disseminated to non western societies that then adopt western philosophy and ideology
- an issue with diffusion of western culture is that its often based on power dynamics
- western culture deemed as superior while non western culture deemed as underdeveloped and unsophisticated = cultural erosion
- glocalisation counters this, as western TNC's adapt their products to suit local tastes

paragraph 2:
- globalisation has allowed movement of people and goods across borders
- international migration has caused cultural diffusion in countries as migrants bring new skills, new languages and religions
- the effectiveness of this depends on the tolerance and acceptance of the host country e.g. extremism in the UK often leads to migrant communities being informally segregated and isolated
- movement of goods means that countries have been able to integrate new cuisine and music into their own culture
- some countries have attempted to stop cultural diffusion from occurring through national restrictions
- technology innovations contributing to social media networks ( international - instagram, tik tok)

conclusion - globalisation has been very significant in the mixing of cultures due to trade and technology however not all countries allow this to happen naturally so its slowed in some places

Assess the impacts of the global shift on one named country ( 12 marks)

introduction - define global shift
- Detroit has been negatively impacted

paragraph 1:
- economic impacts
- decline in industry and movement of jobs to emerging countries has caused a mass loss of employment
- loss of employment in prominent industry = overall area experiences lack of income
- people cannot afford to spend in local businesses so they close = spiral of decline
- area becomes less attractive to potential migrants and to those already living there
- regeneration is too expensive so people move out ( white flight)
- isolation of poorer ethnic minorities
- very high costs to retrain
- national social costs of unemployment

paragraph 2:
- social costs include reduced wellbeing and psychological stress as a result of job loss and financial issues
- poverty induced crime including drugs as informal employment, knife crime
- environmental degradation caused by dereliction
- too expensive to clean up industrial sites
- graffiti and vandalism
- lack of environmental upkeep = continuous decline in quality
- lack of environmental and social value of area may exacerbate the governments failure to regenerate
- rise in drinking and drugs leads to worse health

conclusion - developed countries can be adversely impacted by the global shift as wide unemployment carries social and environmental consequences that can be a local and national scale.

Asses the challenges caused by the rapid growth of megacities ( 12 marks)

introduction - define megacity
- growth can be unsustainable and unregulated therefore there are many economic, social and environmental consequences

paragraph 1:
- pressure on resources and unsustainable demand
- demand for housing causes increase in unplanned settlements including slums
- slums often experience overcrowding, lack of sanitation and water
- unregulated = lack of tax collection has economic consequences
- unplanned settlements built on land makes it unproductive ( urban sprawling) = economic loss
- can also create social tensions due to the influx of new people competing for housing and job opportunities

paragraph 2:
- unsustainable use of resources causes environmental degradation
- resource scarcity
- over abstraction of water causes groundwater depletion
- deforestation reduces ecosystem services e.g. potential medicines and new species
- unregulated sewage and waste
- inefficient health and education services
- vehicle congestion causes rise in greenhouse gas emissions which contributes to poorer health
- contaminated water may cause communicable disease such as cholera
- political tensions internationally from unsolicited environmental damage

conclusion - challenges from mega city growth are very unsustainable as emerging governments often lack the resources and capacity to regulate the consequences.

Assess whether the economic benefits of globalisation always outweigh the social costs. ( 12 marks)

introduction - define globalisation
- economic benefits lead to inevitable social costs for some groups
- whether benefits outweigh costs is down to a consideration of local effects but also the wider picture

paragraph 1:
- globalisation has caused an advancement in the economy through the opportunity for global trade
- reduction in the costs of labour and transportation and increase in free market attitudes has increased capacity of TNC's to grow business through global production networks
- dominance of TNC's = cultural erosion
- economic development of headquarter country
- social costs of this is exploitation of workers who work in dangerous conditions for long hours = reduced wellbeing + reduced health due to environmental degradation
- benefits mainly apply to developed countries
- arguably, emerging countries may eventually reap the benefits from infrastructure investment but only if they keep labour cheap and regulations lenient
- trade off
- social costs in developed nations experiencing deindustrialisation due to global shift

paragraph 2:
- globalisation has facilitated international migration
- economic benefits in terms of balancing demographics through increasing working age population
- expanded workforce bringing new skills
- spending in local services
- social costs include pressure on health, education and housing
- social tensions between groups which reduces the political cohesion of a state
- brain drain of home countries is a social cost but may be outweighed by large sum of remittances

conclusion - economic benefits do outweigh social costs as eventually increased and continuous economic benefits will be able to fund an increase in social development
social costs mainly exist in mass industry societies but will start to reduce when economies mature.

Assess the role of TNC's in developing the economic importance of superpowers ( 12 marks)

introduction - define TNC
- can have positive economic effects in power and economic reach of superpowers

paragraph 1:
- superpowers who own the most TNC's are likely to have a large economy
- TNC's have international markets which can generate a lot of profit
- they can foster innovation through research and development which makes them important to superpowers in terms of technological development
- can then gain huge profits through patents
- they benefit from economies of scale which makes businesses very productive, they also attract lots of consumers
- spread the ideology of the superpower into non western countries, this uniform branding generates wealth through westernisation

paragraph 2:
- TNC's can outcompete national firms which is not always a benefit for superpowers
- TNC's developing global production networks ( global shift) which can cause mass deindustrialisation in superpowers = unemployment
- TNC's outsourcing and offshoring allows cheaper labour which then means companies can make prices cheaper = consumers buy more
- exploration of oil resources with little to no regulations
- large TNC's promote free trade
- can dominate worldwide market prices

conclusion - TNC's have significant economic roles within superpowers but also can cause economic drawbacks at a more localised scale. Their cultural influence also contributes positively to the economy of superpowers.

Assess the importance of military and economic alliance in maintaining superpower status (12)

introduction - define military and economic alliance
- superpower status is arguably maintained through the creation of alliances

paragraph 1:
- military alliances are important in facets of hard power
- mutual defence to global threats is important
- capacity to defend against threats is characteristic of a superpower
e.g. war on terror
- strengthens geopolitical security as a strong military alliance may deter aggressors
- important in the distribution of defence e.g. intelligence
- NATO
- helps large superpowers dominate in strategy by providing means to intervene in conflict e.g. middle east = preserve resources
- may not be as important due to the decline in hard power

paragraph 2:
- economic alliance
- trade liberalisation allows economic growth through competition and specialisation
- e.g. EU, protected from very efficient and cheap imports from China = domestic suppliers maintain economic dominance
- economic cooperation increases stability
- alliances are strategic because superpowers may be able to carry out more of their goals with support
- however, infringes on sovereignty e.g. EU wasn't very important to UK's economy - BREXIT

overall, alliances are often a positive thing however in certain conditions countries may prosper without alliances due to their preference to be independent and dictate their own methods of maintaining status

assess the view that figure 1 gives an accurate summary of the relative strengths of these emerging powers ( 12 marks)

introduction - define emerging powers
- increasingly becoming important to global decision making due to their physical and human characteristics

- China has the largest population which reflects in its large and innovative workforce that can be utilised for increasing income per capita
- whilst this is a strength, the figure ignores the demographics of this population ( ageing) which could contribute to a limited economy
- the figure also ignores that a large population could be unsustainable depending on internal circumstances and could negatively effect resources and services

- GDP per capita shows overall economic strength, with Russia having the highest
- Brazil is second highest which represents its mature consumer economy structure which is a strength to TNC's potential investment
- However, ignores the fact that income per capita can be skewed by a minority of very rich people
- can be major inequality which creates more issues e.g. poverty

- military spending is a good indicator of global dominance and spheres of influence
- China's large defence spending shows that it could act quickly on global action ( although they don't tend to) and they could regulate stability through intervention ( though they tend not to)
- while military spending can be seen as a strength, it depends what the military is used for
- Russia has quite high military spending but this is often used in aggressive isolationist policies which are not a strength

- % of population with access to sanitation is a good indicator of tackling poverty and social development
- also can link to health and wellbeing
- Brazil has a very high percentage whilst India has the lowest percentage
- South Africa has a higher percentage than India, which is interesting because India is projected to be the second largest economy by 2040

- number of films produced is weighted very lightly which undermines its importance
- India comes out on top which shows it has cultural power
- this soft power may be more important than military spending
- shows India's strengths as a cultural hotspot
- Russia produces very few films, reflecting in the fact that it lacks soft power

Assess the extent to which the position of the USA as a uni-polar superpower is being questioned ( 12 marks)

introduction - define uni polar
USA maintaining hegemon due to economic, political and military spheres of influence

paragraph 1:
- external factors include the rise of emerging powers like China
- communist ideology opposes the hegemon of USA creating political tension
- dereliction and unemployment in USA caused by global shift, strengthening Chinese economy
- china projected to have largest economy
- china's massive infrastructure development and biotechnology industry may let it exceed the USA
- however china cannot claim to threaten the position of the USA until it takes global responsibility in geopolitical issues
- in this way, the USA remains a stronger power

paragraph 2:
- internal conditions including economic restructuring
- ageing population
- obesity
- declining middle class
- high debt levels
- all these factors make the US less capable of maintaining its superpower status
- debt means that spending elsewhere e.g. research and development + defence has to be reduced
- international migration to the USA may balance its demographics but the USA hasn't always been open to that ( Trump)

conclusion - there are internal and external conditions that threaten the status of the USA, however it is likely to be a long time period before any of these become highly significant as the USA are still exceeding in many if not all characteristics of power

Assess the extent to which the balance between direct and indirect superpower influence has changed over time (12)

introduction - define direct and indirect power
- contemporary society and modern attitudes can be attributed to altering the use of direct and indirect power

paragraph 1:
- direct power ( colonialism and invasion) is rarely used anymore due to the implications on global stability and regulation of conflict through the UN
- this is shown through Russia's isolation from western superpowers due to their continuous aggressive policy e.g. annexation of Crimea
- direct power may be less effective as it is coercive
- countries can directly retaliate
- not effective way of exerting influence as it causes loss of moral authority which is very important to the support of western democracies
- may still be important in some instances such as the middle east, which has even threatened the stability of superpowers

paragraph 2:
- indirect power including dependency relationships
- neo-colonial mechanisms of aid dependency
- debt exerts control
- international organisations help infiltrate developing markets to continue dominance of superpowers neoliberal and capitalist views
- poor terms of trade keep developing countries from developing further, means superpowers can benefit from their exploitation
- cultural erosion from western TNC's
- more effective since world has become economically determined
- influence cannot be as contested since suppression is not explicit
- cultural influence is also much more important now

conclusion - the balance of power mechanisms has changed a lot due to the nature of globalisation and general society, both direct and indirect are important in different contexts however indirect influence may be more attractive and accepted.

Assess the effectiveness of superpowers and emerging nations in playing key roles in international decision-making (12)

introduction: difference between superpower and emerging nation
their physical and human characteristics provide the ability for global action

paragraph 1:
- USA global police
- weaker countries without resources look to superpowers
- humanitarian crises, internal conflict, terrorism, natural disasters
- geopolitical intervention by superpowers in order to increase stability
- Ebola epidemic - very effective in distributing resources
- maintaining superpower status through strategically intervening in conflicts which have points of interest e.g. middle eastern conflict intervention to secure oil and gas
- UN security council often makes these decisions through voting but superpowers can undermine this and act independently
- emerging nations don't have a seat on the security council
- geopolitical intervention often has long term unintended consequences

paragraph 2:
- decision making on environmental issues like global warming
- many superpowers have the capacity to adopt policy changes e.g. cutting carbon emissions
- superpowers are reluctant to do so
- e.g. USA removed itself from Paris climate agreement
- China is unwilling to make any promises about climate change before 2030
- China in general lacks in effectiveness at being a power because they don't take responsibility for global action
- international decisions on humanitarian issues like human rights are contested because western vs non western ideals create tension
- emerging powers need to be included but they rarely are

conclusion - there are many cases in which superpowers have had the ability to act globally, however this can be impeded by disagreeing states as well as emerging powers who need more of a voice but haven't been formally given one.

Assess the extent to which geopolitical power stems from a range of countries' human and physical characteristics

introduction - define geopolitical power
- interaction of a country's internal characteristics as well as external circumstances will dictate its degree of power

paragraph 1:
- characteristics that can be exerted using hard power mechanisms
- economic power ( GDP, TNC's)
- military power ( troops, defence )
- access to resources
- all can be used to evoke an immediate compelled response
- helps superpowers maintain geopolitical power through global action e.g. military intervention, war against terror
- this is not the most important facet of power because aggressive military methods can cause isolation and loss of moral authority

paragraph 2:
- characteristics that can be reflected using soft power mechanisms
- demographic ( youth vs ageing population)
- cultural ( language, food, music)
- political ( participation in international organisations, charismatic leaders)
- can be used to evoke a gradual but permanent and voluntary effect
- used in conjunction with strategic display of hard power provides the maximum geopolitical power
- alliance creation and moral authority

conclusion - geopolitical power cannot come from just one facet of power but is at its highest when a range of human and physical characteristics are used in a strategic way ( hard + soft = smart)

Assess to what extent China can claim to be a superpower. (12)

introduction - china is an emerging power and projections show that it will have the largest economy soon
- potential for bipolar china vs USA
- potential for unipolar Asian Century
- there are factors which undermine its progress to either of these options

paragraph 1:
- large facets of hard power
- huge manufacturing economy with efficient suppliers and productivity
- investment capabilities
- advanced infrastructure, technological innovation and pioneering in biotechnology services
- alliance creation e.g. Africa

paragraph 2:
- non western ideology is conflicting for already existing superpowers
- lack of responsibility for global action e.g. will not take environmental responsibility to cut emissions and pollution levels
- human rights issues
- lacking in political and cultural facets of power
- it could be argued that these soft power mechanisms will become more prominent once China has surpassed the mass industrial economy and become a mature developed economy
- will have to take more of a global role in stability if China is to become a superpower

conclusion - there are aspects of hard power which China can use to progress to a superpower status however it cannot do this without the development of cultural and political dominance which it lacks.

Evaluate the effectiveness of coastal-management strategies along a stretch of coast. (20)

introduction - coastal management strategies are composed of hard and soft engineering, both of which have their individual costs and benefits. Can be assessed by taking into account stakeholders as well as objective cost benefit analysis and environmental impact assessment on Holderness specifically

paragraph 1:
- Mapleton is a village on the Holderness coastline whereby a hold the line approach was taken
- protected by rock armour and groynes
- allowed deposition to build up and increase beach size = mitigating erosional effects
- this effectiveness has been countered by the adverse effects elsewhere in the sediment cell
- the area South of Mapleton has experienced a large increase in erosion rates due to sediment starvation ( from 1.7m to 3.3m a year)
- effectiveness will depend on cost benefit analysis of whether protection of the properties at Mapleton is worth the loss of property south
- complete loss of Cowden farm and Grange farm which will cause unemployment
- groynes may reduce recreational value because of their intrusive appearance
- EIA - pollution during construction
- protects the main road connecting Holderness villages together

paragraph 2:
- withernsea has a high population so it is more vital to protect it
- sea wall which cost over £6.3 million as well as groynes
- effective at protecting the coast from erosion however the groynes trap sediment and have increased erosion to the south
- loss of land at the Golden sand chalet park
- loss of leisure may reduce tourism which has social and economic costs
- artificial appearance has implications on amenity value

paragraph 3:
- Easington has had revetments placed on the coastline
- protect the gas terminal which has much wider implications for the national economy so there is a higher need for protection
- £4.5 million scheme
- as it is of national interest, the scheme actually fails to take into account protection of the village
- this has caused conflict between stakeholders
- revetments allow deposition while reducing erosion
- they can impede access to the beach and not effective in stormy conditions

conclusion - the approaches are effective at a local scale but the adverse effects elsewhere on the coast limits this. The concentration of hard engineering techniques disrupts a lot of natural processes and therefore soft engineering techniques could be considered instead as hard engineering is not sustainable.

Assess the social and economic risks of rapid coastal retreat. (12)

introduction - define coastal retreat
- has social and economic risks on those living there as well as stakeholders like tourists and the government

paragraph 1:
- economic risks
- damage to property including personal and commercial
- costs for repair and relocation
- compensation costs
- damage to infrastructure disrupts business activity and tourism
- loss of tourism will lead to economic losses
- contamination of agricultural land
- economic losses are small because erosion happens slowly therefore only a small number of properties will be affected at any one time
- risks depend on population density and economy

paragraph 2:
- social risks
- loss of livelihoods = psychological stress from financial issues and job loss
- loss of community if people have to relocate elsewhere
- loss of amenity value has consequences for attachment to place

conclusion - overall, economic and social risks are significant but the degree of these risks will depend on the resilience of a community

Evaluate the view that hard engineering approaches to coastal management produce more winners than losers (20)

introduction - define hard engineering
- various stakeholders are involved who have different attitudes which creates a complex outcome of winners and losers

paragraph 1:
- example of groynes ( define them)
- create winners in the area in which they are built as the beach is built up because sediment transport stops
- a bigger beach increases recreational value and may increase economic input from tourists
- cheaper than many other options
- however, negatively impacts other costal areas
- can foster an expansion in erosion elsewhere due to sediment starvation = creates losers
- pollution created in its construction and ongoing maintenance = environment becomes a loser
- could also be argued that intrusive appearance may reduce amenity value

paragraph 2:
- sea wall ( define)
- curved sea walls are very technologically efficient at dissipating wave energy and reducing erosion
- winners = coastal residents, businesses protected
- protect against surge flooding which is important in global warming
- losers = very expensive to maintain and build which implicates local council
- some sea walls can just reflect energy rather than dissipate it which is not sustainable and may cause erosion elsewhere
- looks artificial = loss of amenity value + tourism loss
- can disrupt habitats

paragraph 3:
- offshore breakwaters ( define)
- winners = cheap for local councils so cost effective, not as unattractive so amenity value can be maintained
- reduces wave energy and erosive force which protects coastal properties and business
- losers = not as technically effective as they are easily damaged so may need ongoing repair
- disrupts navigation, marine business activity and water leisure
- deposition is encouraged between the breakwaters which disrupts longshore drift

conclusion - creates clear winners and losers so using soft engineering may be considered to reduce the number of losers as well as ensuring long term sustainability so that hard engineering approaches are less environmentally impactful

Assess the extent to which rates of coastal recession and stability depend on lithology. (12)

introduction: the principle of coastal recession as well as its rate and location is determined by a range of in situ factors such as lithology but also ex situ factors like wind and wave energy.

paragraph 1:
- lithology affects coastal recession and stability
- the composition of a rock including reactive minerals which increase susceptibility to chemical weathering
- clastic vs crystalline affects stability as interlocking crystals have high stability whereas clastic rocks are not bonded strongly
- sedimentary rocks are often softer with unconsolidated sediment
- is very vulnerable to weathering, mass movement and erosion therefore coastal recession will be quicker for sedimentary coasts
- also plays a role in permeability, permeable rocks e.g. chalk, water can flow through which creates high pore water pressure as well as lubricating bedding planes which reduces stability

paragraph 2:
- geological structure also has to be considered
- jointing, faulting, folding, bedding planes and dip all contribute to stability of a coastline
- e.g. sedimentary rocks have many joints from compaction, have many bedding planes
- ex situ factors such as wind strength and consequent wave energy must be considered
- destructive waves caused by large winds will cause faster rates of coastal erosion as marine erosion processes such as abrasion and hydraulic action will be more pronounced
- tides ( high tides and spring tides) will also increase the erosive force of waves therefore increasing coastal recession rates
- location influences atmospheric circulation, the presence of storm surges

conclusion - it is clear that lithology plays a very significant role in coastal recession and stability however it is not the only factor at play and an interaction between lithology and these other factors may contribute to an amplified outcome

Assess the importance of different erosion processes in the development of cliff features. (12)

introduction - erosion causes cliff recession and instability, different erosional processes are significant in different ways and therefore different erosion processes contribute to different landscapes.

paragraph 1:
- abrasion is very important because it is one of the main processes attacking the cliff face
- impact of sediment can chip away at the cliff and break off fragments which reduces stability
- an important process in the formation of bays as well as wave cut platforms
- the cave, arch, stack stump sequence is also attributed to abrasion
- the significance of abrasion depends upon wave energy as destructive waves will throw sediment at a greater force
- geology also will influence how great the effect of abrasion is
- hydraulic action is very important in wave cut platform formation, cave arch stack stump sequence and erosion of bays
- similarly to abrasion, unconsolidated geology and destructive waves will make hydraulic action more pronounced

paragraph 2:
- corrosion is only conditionally important because it only effects specific rocks that have reactive mineral compositions
- this means that while it still has an effect, the effect is reduced because not all rocks will react
- wave type also influences this ( constructive waves prolong time for reaction)
- attrition is the least important because it doesn't directly attack the cliff face
- it dictates the sediment deposited at the base of the cliff
- can indirectly affect other erosional processes as it can affect how exposed the foot of the cliff is

- other processes like weathering and mass movement are also important in forming coastal landscapes

conclusion - both hydraulic action and abrasion are very significant in erosion even though their effect is determined by external factors like wind and wave energy.

Evaluate the ways in which present-day coastal landscapes have been modified or affected by changes in sea level (20)

introduction - changes in sea level can be classified as isostatic ( change in land level) or eustatic ( change in sea level), these can create characteristics landscapes but are also affected by lithology and geological structure.

paragraph 1:
- emergent coastlines have produced characteristic coastal landscapes through sea levels falling
- this can be a result of water evaporating from oceans and being locked up on the land as ice or post glacial isostatic rebound
- raised beach ( relict beach above high tide level)
- fall in sea levels has only caused this landform to emerge however its initial formation was a result of marine erosional processes
- fossil cliff ( steep slope found at the back of a raised beach)
- the emergence of this land form is due to sea level fall however its formation was initially caused by other factors such as marine erosion and weathering
- Scotland isle of arran

paragraph 2:
- submergent coastlines are more common due to the trend in sea level rise recently
- marine transgression causes previously formed landscapes to be hidden
- can be eustatic e.g. terrestrial ice melt, or isostatic e.g. decompression caused by accretion or the weight of ice on land
- rias ( drowned river valley)
- initial formation of river valley was formed by erosional processes of the river that cut a meandering profile
- therefore sea level rise has not formed the landscape but has submerged it so it is drowned
- fjord - formed by glacial erosion but now flooded by sea level rise
- Dalmatian coast - synclines and anticlines flooded by sea level rise creating long narrow islands running parallel to the coastline

paragraph 3:
- short term landscapes include:
- 2004 Asian tsunami, subduction of Indian oceanic plate caused permanent flooding as terrestrial crust started sinking
- other short term events include storm events
- UK 2014 storm surge caused cliff collapse and the formation of berms
- these were formed by sea level rise on a short term scale however will also probably be washed away by a stabilisation of marine conditions after the storm e.g. sediment from cliff collapse may be washed away eventually - forming new landscapes as a feedback mechanism

conclusion - sea level changes have been very significant in the formation of submergent and emergent landscapes however this is not the only factor at play since the initial landscapes have been formed by erosion over a longer period of time.

Assess the relative importance of factors which have led to rapid coastal erosion along a stretch of coastline (Holderness) (12)

introduction - Holderness coastline has rapid erosion rates of 2m per year and there are a number of reasons including the coastline itself but also the external conditions it is exposed to which have varying significance.

paragraph 1:
- external factors including the environment that the coastline is exposed to
- located along the north sea = exposed to strong wind and waves
- very large fetch means that when waves reach the coast they are high energy and have a greater erosive impact which contributes to rapid erosion rates
- this is also affected by the currents circulating into the north sea from the Atlantic = profile of destructive waves
- winter storms produce temporary rise in sea level and energy of waves which means erosion is greater
- the location and consequent processes acting along the coastline are very significant

paragraph 2:
- the geology present makes the coastline more susceptible to erosion
- boulder clay is very structurally weak and has little resistance therefore even weaker waves could potentially contribute to erosion rates
- boulder clay is also vulnerable to weathering as freeze thaw attacks the cracks
- wetting and drying also leads to slumping
- all of these speed up coastal erosion as well as reducing stability within cliffs which speeds up the effect of other marine erosion processes
- human activity ( coastal management) can lead to rapid increase in erosion as hard engineering strategies like groynes cause sediment starvation elsewhere on the coast and hence increased erosion as there is no sediment to protect the coastline

conclusion:
- It therefore can be seen that a number of different processes are leading to Holderness to experience such rapid erosion, however it cannot be ignored that recent human factors seem to be exacerbating the already powerful physical factors