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Prokaryotes
Organisms without a membrane-bound nucleus or organelles, smaller than eukaryotes, typically 0.5-5 micrometers, including bacteria and archaea.
Eukaryotes
Organisms with a membrane-bound nucleus and organelles, larger than prokaryotes, typically 10-100 micrometers, including plants, animals, fungi, and protists.
Phylogeny
The evolutionary history and relationships among species.
Taxonomy
The science of classifying and naming organisms.
Three-Domain System
Classification system that divides life into three domains: Bacteria, Archaea, and Eukarya.
Gram-positive bacteria
Bacteria that have a thick peptidoglycan layer and stain purple.
Gram-negative bacteria
Bacteria with a thin peptidoglycan layer and stain pink.
Viral Species
A group of viruses that share common characteristics and can replicate within specific host cells.
Viroids
Small, circular RNA molecules that can cause disease in plants.
Reverse Transcriptase
An enzyme used by retroviruses to convert RNA into DNA for integration into a host genome.
ELISA
Enzyme-Linked Immunosorbent Assay; a laboratory technique to detect and quantify proteins, antibodies, and hormones.
Acellular
Refers to entities like viruses that are not made of cells.
Fungal Spores
Reproductive cells produced by fungi that can develop into a new organism.
Species
A group of organisms that can interbreed and produce fertile offspring.
Strains
Variants within a species that often have slight genetic differences.
Antigens
Substances that induce an immune response, typically recognized by antibodies.
Pathogens
Microorganisms that can cause disease.
Protozoa
Single-celled eukaryotic organisms, such as Giardia and Plasmodium.
Helminths
Parasitic worms, such as Taenia and Ascaris.
Prions
Misfolded proteins that induce misfolding in other proteins, causing diseases.
Photosynthesis
The process by which green plants, algae, and some bacteria convert light energy into chemical energy in the form of glucose, using carbon dioxide and water.
Cellular Respiration
The biochemical process in which cells convert glucose and oxygen into energy (ATP), carbon dioxide, and water.
Mutation
A change in the DNA sequence of an organism that can lead to variations in traits.
Natural Selection
The process where organisms better adapted to their environment tend to survive and produce more offspring.
Biodiversity
The variety of life in the world or a particular habitat or ecosystem, including species diversity, genetic diversity, and ecosystem diversity.
Ecology
The branch of biology that studies the relationships between organisms and their environment.
Symbiosis
A close and often long-term interaction between two different biological species, which can be mutualistic, commensalistic, or parasitic.
Gene
A sequence of DNA that encodes a functional product, usually a protein, and is the basic unit of heredity.
Chromosome
A structure consisting of DNA and associated proteins that carries genetic information.
Allele
One of two or more versions of a gene that determine distinct traits.
Genotype
The genetic constitution of an individual organism, which may influence phenotypic traits.
Phenotype
The observable physical or biochemical characteristics of an organism, determined by both genetic makeup and environmental influences.
Carbohydrates
Organic compounds made of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen, which serve as a primary energy source for living organisms.
Proteins
Large molecules made of amino acids that perform a vast array of functions within organisms.
Lipids
Hydrophobic organic molecules, including fats, oils, and steroids, that serve as energy storage, structural components, and signaling molecules.
Nucleic Acids
Biomolecules essential for life, including DNA and RNA, which store and transmit genetic information.
Enzyme
A protein that acts as a biological catalyst, speeding up chemical reactions in the body.
Homeostasis
The tendency of biological systems to maintain stable internal conditions despite external changes.
Evolution
The process through which populations of organisms change over generations through mechanisms such as natural selection.
Antibody
A protein produced by the immune system in response to an antigen, helping to neutralize pathogens.
Vaccination
The act of introducing a vaccine into the body to stimulate an immune response against a specific disease.
Hormone
A signaling molecule produced by glands in the endocrine system that regulates physiological processes.
Stomata
Small openings on the surface of leaves that allow gas exchange (CO2 and O2) and transpiration.
Xylem
Plant tissue responsible for the transport of water and nutrients from roots to leaves.
Phloem
Plant tissue that transports sugars and other metabolic products downward from the leaves.
Fossil
The preserved remains or traces of organisms from the past, often found in sedimentary rock.
Plate Tectonics
The theory that describes the large-scale movements of Earth's lithosphere, which can cause earthquakes, volcanic activity, and the creation of mountains.
Carbon Cycle
The biogeochemical cycle through which carbon is exchanged between the biosphere, geosphere, hydrosphere, and atmosphere.
Nitrogen Cycle
The process by which nitrogen is converted between its various chemical forms, essential for life.
Hydrological Cycle
The continuous movement of water on, above, and below the surface of the Earth.
Climate Change
Long-term alterations in temperature, precipitation, wind patterns, and other elements of the Earth's climate system.
Ozone Layer
A region of Earth's stratosphere that absorbs most of the sun's harmful ultraviolet radiation.
Biomagnification
The increasing concentration of toxic substances in the tissues of organisms at higher levels in a food chain.
Invasive Species
Non-native species that spread widely in a new habitat, often causing ecological harm.
