Biology Final 2023

Apoptosis

programmed cell termination; This happens if the cyclins stop the cell cycle

Asexual Reproduction

the reproduction including one parent in the forms of Budding, Fragmentation, Bionic Fusion, and Parthenogenesis

Benign Tumor

a non-cancerous tumor

Cancer

a disorder in which body cells lose the ability to control the cell growth rate; That's why masses are produced, or tumors

Cell Division

the process in which a cell divides into two daughter cells before a cell grows too large; Two stages: Mitosis and Cytokinesis; (Interphase: Preparation stage)

Cell cycle

the cycle in which the cell prepares to divide into two daughter cells; Interphase, Prophase, Metaphase, Anaphase, and Telophase

Centromere

the bonding point between two chromatids; the point where spindle fibers attach themselves to the chromosomes

Chromosome

The genetic information that I passed on from one generation of cells to the next; Visible only during cell division

Cyclin

a family of proteins that regulate the timing of the cell cycle in eukaryotic cells; Checks to make sure that the cell is producing enough in a short amount of time; can stop the cell cycle; Will begin apoptosis (programmed cell death)

Cytokinesis

the division of the cytoplasm during cell division; In plant cells, the cell plate that eventually becomes part of the cell wall; In animal cells, the microfibers help divide the cytoplasm

Growth Factor

the external regulators that stimulate the growth and division of cells; An example of a cyclin

Interphase

the growth phase of cell division; (G1, Synthesis, G2)

Mitosis

the division of chromosomes and cytoplasm; Made up of four different parts ; Somatic cells (body cells) divide; Asexual reproduction

Sexual Reproduction

a type of reproduction that involves two parents that create an offspring with combined genetic information from each parent; Differentiation in offspring

Sister chromatid

two identical copies of a chromatid

Spindle apparatus

where the spindle fibers are synthesized; Help separate the chromosomes in cell division (because they are just cool like that)

Tumor

a mass of cancer cells that divided uncontrollably

Surface Area

the material used to cover an object COMPLETELY. L x W x \# of sides

Volume

is the amount of space inside an object. L x W x H

What are some difficulties a cell faces as it increases in size?

As the cell grows, the stress on the DNA molecule increases. It also needs more nutrients, and now that it is bigger, it becomes harder to transport.

What size is most efficient

The smallest because it is easier to remove waste and transport nutrients

How does asexual and sexual reproduction compare/differ?

Asexual reproduction requires only one parent, and offspring are identical to their parents. Sexual reproduction requires two parents and the offspring have mixed genes from both parents

Parts of the cell cycle

Interphase, G1 (growth), S (DNA replication), G2 (preparation for mitosis) Mitosis, Prophase, Metaphase, Anaphase, Telophase, Cytokinesis

Prophase

Chromosomes condense and the centrioles start to creates spindle fibers and DNA strands attach themselves to the centromere, and finally the nuclear envelope disappears (longest phase!)

Metaphase

the chromosomes begin to line up in the center of the cell, and the spindle fibers connect the centromere of each chromosome

Anaphase

the chromosomes now break off into chromatids and go to each side of the cell, and become individual chromosomes; (Spindle fibers pull SISTER CHROMATIDS apart)

Telophase

The cytoplasm begins to divide, and the nuclear envelope begins to reform; the spindle fibers disappear

Draw and label a chromosome.

What are the parts of mitosis?

prophase, metaphase, anaphase, telophase, cytokinesis

What is the difference between cytokinesis in animal and plant cells?

The plant cell has a cell wall, which takes longer to divide, so it forms a cell plate until the cell wall is formed

How is the cell cycle regulated?

The cell is checked by Cyclins, which make sure the cell is growing properly, the DNA molecule was copied properly, and that future cell generations will not have a defect

How do cancer cells differ from other cells?

Cancer cells do not respond to signals given to them to stop reproducing, which causes them to divide uncontrollably. Divides as a big ball of cells (tumors), not linearly my toes sis

Mitosis

Starts with 46 Chromosomes (Diploid [symbol is 2n]) ; 46 -\> 46 and 46 (two daughter cells) ; 8 -\> 8 and 8 (Daughter cells will always have the same number as the parent cell)

Mitosis vs Meiosis

Mitosis: 46 chromosomes; Divides once; PMAT; Hapliod Cells; Asexual Reproduction

Meiosis: 46 chromosomes; divides twice; Dipliod cells; Sexual Reproduction; PMAT1 and PMAT2

Gene

factors (traits) that are passed down from one generation to the next

Gamete

sex cells (found in meiosis [ex: egg and sperm cell)

Heredity

a biological process that passes genes from parents to offspring

Genetics

the study of heredity

Trait

a specific characteristic of an individual

Hybrid

the offspring of crosses between parents with different traits

Pure Trait

a trait that has two of the same alleles

Allele

the different/alternative form of a gene

Dominant

shows over-recessive gene

Recessive

only shows if it is a pure genotype

Phenotype

the appearance of an organism based on its genotype; what the offspring looks like

Genotype

the genetic makeup of an organism; what the offspring's allele combination is

Homozygous

pure; two of the same allele

Pure traits

two dominant or two recessive allele

Heterozygous

a hybrid, one of each allele

Punnett Square

a tool created to find genotypes and phenotypes of offspring from parents

Meiosis divides....

twice; and sex cells (gametes)

Mitosis divides....

once; copies itself

Crossing Over

dealing with Homologous chromosomes (genetic information crosses over to share DNA

Gregor Mendel

father of modern genetics; cross-pollinated pea plants

P, F1, and F2 generations

parental, first generation, second generation

monohybrid cross

One trait is being crossed in a Punnett Square

Parent (TT) x Parent (tt)

100% Heterozygous

Frederick Griffith

used mice to see how bacteria spread and how it led to illness; bacteria is killed when heated up; dead s-strain and living r-strain kills the mouse

Oswald Avery

research led to the conclusion that DNA is the substance responsible for heredity (Transformation factor); Biomolecule was the cause for transmission from dead to living bacteria (results pointed to DNA)

Hershey and Chase

Used radioactive material to label DNA and protein; infected bacteria passed on DNA; helped prove that DNA is genetic material not proteins; used a bacteriophage

Erwin Chargaff

Used paper chromatography to separate the chemicals in DNA; Concluded that Adenine \= Thymine, Guanine \= Cytosine

Rosalind Franklin

used an x-ray to figure out DNA is a Double Helix

Watson and Crick

discovered the structure of DNA; double helix; stole Franklin's work

Maurice Wilkins

Used X-ray crystallography to study the molecular structure of DNA. Worked with Franklin (did not collaborate well) to create a picture of the DNA molecule which allowed Watson and Crick to deduce the double helix structure of two strands.

DNA

large molecule made up of long chain of subunits (nucleotides); have covalent bonds

Nucleotides

consist of a phosphate group, carbon sugar, and nitrogen base

Macromolecule group

proteins, nucleic acids, carbohydrates, lipids

Covalent bond

sugar and phosphate

Nitrogenous bases in DNA

Adenine, Thymine, Cytosine, Guanine

Pyrimidines

Cytosine and Thymine

Complementary strands

Adenine and Thymine, Cytosine and Guanine

RNA

Ribonucleic acid; consists of only one strand of nucleotides; has ribose; NOT deoxyribose (DNA)

Chromosome formation link

Double helix -\> Nucleosome -\> supercoil

Charles Darwin

Scientist, naturalist, and author of "On the Origin of Species"

HMS Beagle

Name of the ship Darwin sailed on for five years

What are three things Charles Darwin collect?

fossils, plants, animals

Galapagos Islands

Isabela Island (Dome-shaped turtle), Hood Island (Saddleback turtle), and Pinta Island (Intermediate Turtle). (Darwin noted that the tortoises' traits varied from island to island due to their different habitats)

The HMS Beagle's voyage length of time

5 years

Artificial selection

breeding process done by humans for a desirable trait outcome, typically to enhance a certain feature (ex

Natural selection

the process through which species adapt to their environments, the reason for evolution; affects PHENOTYPE (PHYSICAL TRAITS), not genotype (genetic makeup).

Four steps of natural selection

Overproduction, Variation, Competition, and Selection.

Evolution

the passing of traits over time/ slight gradual changes.

The origin of species by means of natural selection (What was the book about?)

The book was about how evolution takes place through a process called natural selection. Natural selection is the process by which organisms better suited for adaption to their environment survive, while those that are poorly suited to their environment do not.

Fossil

a record of the history of life on Earth

Types of rocks

sedimentary (formed by pre-existing rocks or other organisms); igneous (hot, molten rock solidifies); metamorphic (started out as some other type of rock like sedimentary and igneous rock but changed due to extreme heat and pressure).

Fitness

the ability to survive long enough to reproduce

Adaptation

an inherited trait that increases an organism's chances of survival

Mimicry

the ability for an organism to look and act like another organism, one being potentially harmful or poisonous, for survival

Descent with modification

each living species has descended, with changes, from other species over time

Fossil record

a record history of life on earth by fossils

Homologous body structures

similar anatomy in different types of animals because of a common ancestor (ex

Analogous Structures

used for the same purpose and can be superficially similar in constriction, but are not inherited from a common ancestor; show that functionally similar features can evolve independently in similar environments (ex

Vestigial structures

"leftover" traces of evolution that serve no purpose (ex

Biochemical Evidence

DNA with more similar sequences suggest species are more closely related; Common descent

James Hutton

Geologist whose work lead to the theory that the earth was older than 6,000 years old

Charles Lyell

Worked with Hutton to produce a theory that the earth is extremely old and the same processes that operated in the past, operate in the present

Jean-Baptiste Lamarck

proposed that organisms had an inborn urge to become complex and perfect, and could change during their lifetimes by selectively using or not using various body parts (These new changes and features would help the organism survive; Also suggested that individuals could pass these acquired traits on to their offspring, enabling species to change (evolve) over time)

Thomas Malthus

noted that overcrowding was occurring because the rate of birth was high than the rate of death (in humans); Suggested forces that work AGAINST population growth are war, famine, and disease; if the human population when unchecked, there wouldn't be sufficient living space or food for everyone

derived trait

a trait that arose in an ancestor and is passed along to its descendants (cladogram)