Learning (AP Psychology)

What is learning?

A relatively enduring change in behavior resulting from an experience.

What is nonassociative learning?

The simplest form of learning that occurs after repeated exposure to a single stimulus or event.

What is associative learning?

Coming to understand how stimuli or events are related, linking two events that generally take place one right after the other.

What is conditioning?

The process in which environmental stimuli and behavioral responses are connected.

What is social learning?

Understanding how stimuli or events are associated through social means, such as observation and instruction.

What is classical conditioning?

A neutral stimulus elicits a response because it has become associated with a stimulus that already produces that response.

What is a neutral stimulus?

Any stimulus that does not trigger a specific reaction.

What is a conditioning trial?

The process of conditioning a subject to associate a stimulus with a response.

What is a test trial?

Testing the efficiency of the conditioned stimulus in causing the desired response.

What is an unconditioned response?

An automatic or unlearned response.

What is an unconditioned stimulus?

A stimulus that naturally elicits an unconditioned response.

What is a conditioned stimulus?

A previously neutral stimulus that eventually triggers a conditioned response.

What is a conditioned response?

A learned response to a previously neutral stimulus.

How does the response from a conditioned stimulus differ from an unconditioned stimulus?

The conditioned stimulus causes a conditioned response, while the unconditioned stimulus causes an unconditioned response.

What is delayed conditioning?

There is a brief delay between the onset of the neutral stimulus and the unconditioned stimulus, leading to stronger conditioning.

What is trace conditioning?

The neutral stimulus precedes the unconditioned stimulus without overlap; longer delays decrease the likelihood of learning.

What is simultaneous conditioning?

The neutral stimulus and unconditioned stimulus occur at the same time, leading to poor learning.

What is backwards conditioning?

The unconditioned stimulus is presented before the neutral stimulus, which generally leads to poor conditioning.

What is acquisition?

Formation of an association between the neutral stimulus and unconditioned stimulus.

What is extinction?

Gradual diminishing of a conditioned response until it disappears.

What is spontaneous recovery?

Reappearance of a conditioned response after extinction, which fades quickly unless the conditioned stimulus is paired with the unconditioned stimulus again.

What does the Rescorla-Wagner model say about classical conditioning?

An animal learns that some predictors are better than others; whether a conditioned response is acquired or extinguished depends on the extent to which the unconditioned stimulus is unexpected.

What is a positive prediction error?

When input exceeds prediction.

What is a negative prediction error?

When input falls short of prediction.

Why is it easier for an animal to associate a novel stimulus with an unconditioned stimulus than a familiar stimulus?

Because a new stimulus stands out more in the environment.

What is stimulus generalization?

When stimuli similar but not identical to the conditioned stimulus produce the conditioned response.

What is stimulus discrimination?

When an animal learns to differentiate between two similar stimuli, with one consistently associated with the conditioned stimulus and the other not.

What is second order conditioning?

When a previously learned stimulus is used to help condition a new stimulus.

What is operant conditioning?

Conditioning that depends on an animal performing an action that leads to a consequence.

Why was operant conditioning once called instrumental conditioning?

Because 'instrumental' implies that the actions are done on purpose.

Who was Edward Thorndike?

A psychologist known for the Law of Effect.

What is the Law of Effect?

Any behavior leading to a 'satisfied' state of affairs is likely to occur again, and vice versa.

What does Skinner mean by reinforcement?

Consequences that increase the likelihood of an organism's future behavior.

What is a reinforcer?

A stimulus that occurs after a response and increases the likelihood that that response will be repeated.

What is a Skinner Box?

The operant chamber used for studies in operant conditioning.

What is reinforcement discrimination?

When an animal learns that only one action leads to a reward.

What is a discriminative stimulus?

A stimulus that signals that an action will be reinforced.

What happens during positive reinforcement?

Something is added, increasing the probability that a behavior will be repeated.

What happens during negative reinforcement?

An unpleasant stimulus is removed, increasing the probability that a behavior will be repeated.

What happens during positive punishment?

An unpleasant stimulus is administered, decreasing the probability that a behavior will be repeated.

What happens during negative punishment?

A pleasant stimulus is removed, decreasing the probability that a behavior will be repeated.

What is required for punishment to be effective?

The punishment must be reasonable, unpleasant, and applied immediately.

What is shaping?

Reinforcing behaviors that are increasingly similar to the desired behavior.

What is the difference between primary and secondary reinforcers?

Primary reinforcers satisfy biological needs, whereas secondary reinforcers do not.

How did David Premack determine the value of a reinforcer?

By the amount of time a person willingly engages in a specific behavior associated with the reinforcer.

What is the Premack Principle?

A more valued activity can be used to reinforce the performance of a less valued activity.

What is temporal discounting?

When the value of a reward diminishes over time.

What is continuous reinforcement?

Reinforcing behavior every time that it occurs.

What is partial reinforcement?

The intermittent reinforcement of a behavior.

How does a fixed interval schedule work?

Reinforcement is provided after a certain amount of time has passed, resulting in the lowest rate of responding.

What is the behavior pattern for fixed interval schedules?

An increase in behavior just before the opportunity for reinforcement, then behavior drops off.

How does a variable interval schedule work?

Reinforcement is provided after the passage of time, but the time is not regular.

What rate of responding does a variable interval schedule produce?

Medium rate of responding.

How does a fixed ratio schedule work?

Reinforcement is provided after a certain number of responses are made.

What rate of responding does a fixed ratio schedule produce?

Higher rate of responding.

How does a variable ratio schedule work?

Reinforcement is provided after an unpredictable number of responses.

What rate of responding does a variable ratio schedule produce?

Highest rate of responding.

What is the partial reinforcement extinction effect?

Greater persistence of behavior under partial reinforcement than under continuous reinforcement.

What did both Pavlov and Skinner believe were the two important variables in conditioning?

Timing and intensity.

What is the principle of equipotentiality?

Any object could become a conditioned stimulus; however, this idea is incorrect.

Describe three ways that John Garcia's taste aversion studies contradicted Pavlov.

Single-trial learning, long delay between stimuli and response with learning still occurring, biological preparedness.

What is instinctive drift?

The tendency for animals to forgo rewards to pursue their normal patterns of behavior.

What did Robert Bolles say about animals' built in reactions?

Animals have built-in defensive reactions to threatening stimuli.

What does Martin Seligman mean by biological preparedness?

Animals are genetically programmed to fear certain objects.

How does insight learning contradict Skinner?

There is no reinforcement, yet learning occurs.

How does latent learning contradict Skinner?

There is no reinforcement, yet learning occurs.

Describe the brain structures involved in the pleasure circuit and the main neurotransmitter involved.

Ventral tegmentum increases dopamine release during rewarding activities, connecting with the medial forebrain bundle and nucleus accumbens.

What is the difference between wanting and liking?

Wanting is the desire or craving for a substance; liking is the subjective experience of pleasure.

How did John B. Watson show that phobias have learned components?

Through the Little Albert experiment, demonstrating learned phobias.

What is counterconditioning?

Conditioning to replace an undesirable response to a stimulus with a favorable one.

What is social learning?

Learning behaviors by being instructed or watching others.

Who was Albert Bandura?

A psychologist known for his research on social learning.

What was the Bobo doll experiment?

An experiment showing that children imitate aggressive behavior after observing adults act violently.

What is modeling?

The imitation of observed behavior.

What are models?

Those being observed during the learning process.

Which models are we more likely to imitate?

Models who are attractive, of high status, and somewhat similar to ourselves.

What is vicarious learning?

Learning about an action's consequences by watching others being rewarded or punished.

What is instructed learning?

Learning specific to humans, involving verbal instruction about associations.

Describe Susan Mineka's experiment.

Mineka had lab-raised monkeys watch wild-raised monkeys react fearfully to snakes, showing learned phobias.

What is long-term potentiation (LTP)?

A process that strengthens synapses through repeated activation, involving glutamate and calcium influx.

What role does glutamate play in LTP?

Glutamate binds to AMPA and NMDA receptors to facilitate synaptic strengthening.

What is the function of the NMDA receptor in LTP?

When activated, it allows calcium influx resulting from depolarization caused by AMPA receptor activation.

What changes occur in the synapse as a result of LTP?

Increased synapse size and dendritic growth, enhancing learning and memory.