Criminology Exam 2

Who is credited with coining the term sociology?

Auguste Comte

Criminal gangs primarily commit what types of crimes?

economic or property crimes

Durkheim showed that the rate of suicide was lower among individuals that had all of the following characteristics EXCEPT ______.

had children

Guerry found that ______ crimes were higher in wealthy areas but ______ crime was higher in poor areas.

property; violent

One thing all forms of strain theory have in common is their emphasis on a sense of ______ in crime causation.

frustration

According to the text, providing an individual with a/an ______ is key to building a more stable life, leaving the individual less likely to feel stressed or 'strained.'

job

Who created differential opportunity theory?

Hirschi

What or who can provide the mechanism for limiting human individuals' insatiable appetite for more?

society

What do we call the perception that results when relatively poor people live in close proximity to relatively wealthy people?

relative deprivation

Similarities in daily routine and constant interaction with like members of society lead to a strong uniformity in values that Durkheim called ______.

collective conscience

This imbalance in emphasis between the ______ and _______ of societies is what Merton called anomie.

goals; means

Merton identified conformity, innovation, rebellion, retreatism, and ritualism as ______.

adaptation to strain

Which adaptation to strain would most likely lead someone to become a predatory street criminal?

innovation

Cohen's 'college boy' is best matched with Merton's ______ type of adaptation to strain.

conformity

According to differential opportunity theory, the three types of gangs are criminal gangs, conflict gangs, and ______ gangs.

retreatist

According to Cloward and Ohlin, what type of gang fits Merton's rebellion the best due to striving for status and being blocked from legitimate and illegitimate opportunities for making money?

conflict

General Strain Theory has three categories of strain: presentation of noxious stimuli, removal of positively valued stimuli, and ______

failure to achieve goals

What distinguishes Cloward and Ohlin's theory from the previous strain theories is that they emphasized five different types of gangs that form based on the characteristics of the social structure in the neighborhood.

false

Conflict gangs are highly organized and turn a tremendous profit.

false

A key policy implication of strain theories is the need to develop healthy coping mechanisms.

true

One type of activity that has shown relatively consistent success in relieving stress is laughter.

true

Durkheim was clear in stating that crime is not only normal but necessary in all societies.

true

Merton's ritualists do not seek to achieve the goals of material success.

true

Ritualists, in strain theory, buy into both the conventional means of success and the conventional goals.

false

Using a basketball analogy to explain adaptations to strain, a retreatist wouldn't care about winning the game and wouldn't want to play the game either.

true

The age at which offenders tend to commit predatory street crimes, such as robbery, rape, murder, and burglary, tends to peak sharply in their teenage years to early 20s, and then drop off quickly.

true

A young man who feels he doesn't live up to the 'middle-class measuring rod,' and then develops a system of values that is contrary to middle-class values would fit Cohen's Theory of Lower-Class Status Frustration.

true

Cohen's 'corner boy' best fits with Merton's type of adaptation called ritualism.

true

Although some studies have criticized General Strain Theory, for the most part, studies have supported it.

true

In the Durkheimian model, mechanical societies have a high division of labor and thus a low level of agreement about societal norms.

false

______ is a modern example of an area or zone invading another area or zone, and the previously dominant area must succeed or die off.

urban sprawl

The breakdown in the conditions of a neighborhood leads to social disorganization, which in turn leads to delinquents learning criminal activities from whom?

older youth

The center circle according to Burgesses zone model is called ______.

zone 1

The development of the Chicago School of criminology was the epitome of using theoretical development and ______ to help improve conditions in society when it was most needed.

scientific testing

______ proposed a framework that began with the assumption that certain neighborhoods in all cities have more crime than other parts of the city.

Clifford Shaw and Henry McKay

______ proposed a theory of city growth in which cities were seen as growing not simply on the edges but from the inside outward.

Ernest W. Burgess

Shaw and McKay's findings rejected ______ because it is obvious that the culture is not what influences crime and delinquency but rather the criminogenic nature of the environment.

social darwinism

Some critics of Shaw and McKay have stated that their original research did not actually measure their primary construct of ______.

social disorganization

______ model assumes that all cities grow in a natural way with the same five zones.

concentric circles

What city did experts identify as the fastest-growing city in the United States due to it growing from about 5000 people in the early 1800s to more than 2 million people by 1900?

Chicago

In the Chicago School, this zone was once residential but is becoming more industrial because of invading factories; it tends to have the highest crime rates and is also known a Zone II.

zone in transition

According to Burgess's theory of concentric circles, Zone ______ was the "workingmen's homes," largely made up of relatively modest homes and apartments; Zone ______ consisted of higher-priced family dwellings and more expensive apartments.

III; IV

What is an example of heterogeneity?

a city where the people are from a variety of ethnic backgrounds

In addition to poverty, heterogeneity, and physical dilapidation, what two additional factors did Shaw and McKay notice in high crime areas?

transient residents and unemployment

What did Ferracuti and Wolfgang's claim was a culturally learned adaptation to deal with negative life circumstances?

violence

A pocket of individuals who may have a set of norms that deviate from conventional values are a ______.

subculture

Walter Miller's six focal concerns are: fate, autonomy, trouble, toughness, ______ and _______.

excitement; smartness

Which statement is true?

Most adults in the lower class attempt to socialize their children to believe in conventional values.

Cultural/subcultural theories of crime assume that there are unique groups in society that socialize their children to believe that certain activities that violate conventional law are good and positive ways to behave.

true

The theoretical framework of concentric circles no longer has support from theorists.

false

Shaw and McKay's formulation of social disorganization focused on the micro level of analysis, which has been criticized in recent years.

false

The Chicago School of criminology can be generalized to other cities.

true

Shaw and McKay's longitudinal data showed that in terms of delinquency rates, it mattered which ethnic group lived in Zone II.

false

The code of the streets theory by Anderson focused on African Americans and claims that due to deprived conditions in the inner cities, black Americans feel a sense of hopelessness, isolation, and despair.

true

Radial growth refers to development that begins on the outside and ripples inward.

false

Concentric circles are models of growth that assume all cities grow in a natural way with the same five zones.

true

According to Anderson, "the code of the streets" is to maintain one's reputation and demand respect; to be disrespected is considered grounds for a physical attack.

true

U.S. studies on cultural theories of crime show that no large groups blatantly deny the middle-class norms of society.

true

Empirical evidence suggests neighborhood watch groups are the most effective method to deter crime in inner-city areas.

false

Statistically speaking, intraracial crime is more common than interracial crime.

true

In the process of classical conditioning, the organism, animal, or person is a/an ______ actor in the process, simply receiving stimuli and responding.

passive

What critical influence did Sutherland leave out of differential association theory?

media

Differential associations vary in all of the following EXCEPT ______.

moderation

The neutralizing techniques found primarily in corporate settings is ______, which essentially is the belief that an individual or group has done so much good that he or she is entitled to mess up by doing something illegal.

metaphor of the ledger

The text states it is arguable that ______ may have the most empirical validity of any contemporary (nonintegrated) model of criminal offending.

differential reinforcement theory

Tarde introduced imitation theory, which incorporated three laws of imitation. Which law below is not part of the laws of imitation?

the inferior is imitated by the superior

The four constructs of social bonding theory is made up of all of the following EXCEPT ______.

conformity

The gray area between free will and determinism is called ______.

soft determinism

______ assumes that in households where the mother and father have relatively similar levels of power at work, mothers will be less likely to exert control over their daughters.

power-control theory

Matza's drift theory is highly consistent with several of the ideas presented by control theorists, including all of the following assumptions EXCEPT ______.

selfish tendencies appear only during the teenage years

______ assumes that all people would naturally commit crimes if not for restraints on the selfish tendencies that exist in every individual.

control theory

______ theory takes into account associations with persons and images presented in the media.

Differential identification

Learning theories focus on why and how individuals are socialized into criminal activity; by contrast, control theories focus on why and how ______.

individuals are not socialized into conforming behavior

Tabula Rasa means

blank slate

Which type of conditioning is concerned with how behavior is influenced by reinforcements and punishments?

operant

Why is it called neutralization theory?

People justify and rationalize behavior by "neutralizing" it, making excuses for behavior they know is wrong.

Which statement is not one of the recognized techniques of neutralization?

assessment of gain

What two techniques of neutralization are most commonly used by white collar criminals?

defense of necessity and metaphor of the ledger

Control theories assume that all people would naturally commit crimes if not for ______.

restraints like social attachments and investments in society

The low self-control theory of crime, also known as the general theory of crime, assumes that ______.

individuals are born predisposed to self-centered activities and only effective child rearing and socialization can overcome this fact

The general theory of crime contends that if a child has not learned self-control by age ______, then s/he will never have it.

10

Sutherland was greatly influenced by Shaw and McKay's concept of social disorganization.

true

Sutherland was adamant that people learned about how and why to commit crime through media role models, such as those in movies or on the radio.

true

Burgess and Aker's theory addresses the idea that delinquent associations could occur after criminal activity takes place.

true

Sutherland's differential association theory is hard to test because it uses too many different types of learning models.

false

The notion of collective conscience can be seen as an early form of the idea of social bonding.

true

The assumption that people have innate antisocial tendencies is a controversial one because it is nearly impossible to test.

true

Sutherland believed that an individual's propensity to commit crimes is largely inherited.

false

Sykes and Matza argued that most criminals have completely rejected the dominant social order.

false

Non-social reinforcement is considered self-reinforcement

true

What level of proof must be established to obtain a warrant?

Probable cause

According to the Fourth Amendment, what remedy exists should a person's Fourth Amendment rights be violated?

The amendment does not address this issue

Which of the following would not be considered a "house" as interpreted by the Fourth Amendment?

A restaurant dining room

In old England, general warrants were used to search _____.

any place for any reason at any time

In old England, writs of assistance were used to compel citizens to _____.

assist in a search

The Fourth Amendment prohibits _____ searches without a warrant.

"unreasonable"

The majority decision in Olmstead v. United States held the wiretapping constitutional because _____.

the officers did not physically intrude into the home

Overturning the old standard, the U.S. Supreme Court adopted which new Fourth Amendment test in Katz v. United States?

Expectation of privacy test

In which of the following situations does a person have a reasonable expectation of privacy?

Holding a conversation with an actual friend in a rented apartment

To exercise the plain view doctrine and seize an item, an officer must have probable cause to believe that the plainly observed object is evidence of criminal activity and _____.

be lawfully positioned