HESI A2 BIOLOGY

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94 Terms

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kingdom

largest and most inclusive category

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species

most restrictive category

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hierarchic organizational system

kingdom, phylum, class, order, family, genius, species

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steps to an experiment

1. observation

2. hypothesis

3. experiment

4. conclusion

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observation

data is observed and recorded/ previous data is studied

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hypothesis

a statement or explanation of certain events or happenings

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experiment

repeatable procedure of gathering data to support or refute the hypothesis

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conclusion

where the data and its significance are fully explained

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aqueous

water based

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water molecule consists of

two hydrogen atoms covalently bonded to one oxygen atom

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most significant aspect of water is

the polarity of its bonds that allows for hydrogen bonding between molecules

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specific heat

the amount of heat necessary to raise the temperature of 1 gram of that molecule 1 degree celsius

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water has high specific heat due to

the extent of hydrogen bonding between water molecules, which allows waters to resist shifts in temperature (ability of oceans or large bodies of water to stabilize climates)

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cohesion

the ability of a molecule to stay bonded or attracted to another molecule of the same substance (water running together on a newly waxed car)

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adhesion

the ability of water to bond to or attract other molecules or substances (when water is sprayed onto the wall, some of it sticks to the wall)

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when water freezes it forms

lattice crystals; causing the molecules to spread apart, resulting in the phenomenon of ice floating

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polarity of water allows it to act as an

versatile solvent (used to dissolve a number of different solvents)

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carbohydrates

longs chains, or polymers of sugar

-used for storage, structure, and energy

-the backbone of important molecules such as DNA and RNA

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lipids

known as fats, but specifically they are fatty acids, phospholipids, and steroids

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fatty acids

Vary greatly but simply are grouped into two categories: saturated and unsaturated

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saturated fats

contain no double bonds in their hydrogen tail

-solids at room temp

-lead to cardiovascular problems associated with diets

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unsaturated fats

have one or more double bonds

-liquid at room temperature

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phospholipids

-consist of two fatty acids of varying length bonded to a phosphate group

-phosphate group is charged and therefore polar and soluble in water

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steroids

-component of membranes

-precursors to significant hormones and drugs

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proteins

-most significant contributor to cellular function

-polymeres of 20 molecules called amino acids

-complex, consist of several structural types and are the largest biological molecule

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enzymes

particular types of proteins that are used to catalyze different reactions or processes

(physical factors such as temperature and pH can alter the activity because they have an effect on the shape)

*enzymes speed up reactions

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Nucleic Acids

-components of the molecules of inheritance

-DNA and RNA

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DNA deoxyribonucleic acid

unique molecule specific to a particular organism and contains the code necessary for replication

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RNA ribonucleic acid

used in transfer of information from DNA to protein level and as a messenger in most species of the genetic code

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metabolic pathways

progressing from a standpoint of high energy to low energy.

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metabolism

sum of all chemical reactions that occur in an organism

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prokaryotic cells

lack a defined nucleus and do not contain membrane bounded organelles

(prokaryote: bacteria and cyanobacteria)

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eukaryote cells

have a membrane inclosed nucleus and a series of membrane bound organelles that carry out the functions of the cell as directed by the genetic information contained in the nucleus

(eukaryote: all living organisms except eubacteria and archaebacteria)

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nucleus

contains the DNA of the cell in organized masses called chromosomes

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chromosomes

contain all the genetic information for the regeneration (repair and replication) of the cell, as well as all instructions for the function of the cell

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ribosomes

organelles read the RNA produced in the nucleus and translate the genetic instructions to produce proteins

-found attached to the endoplasmic reticulum (bound ribosomes) and the cytoplasm (free ribosomes)

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endoplasmic reticulum

membranous organelle found attached to the nuclear membrane and consists of 2 continuous parts (smooth ER and rough ER)

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rough ER

-covered with ribosomes

-responsible for protien synthesis and membrane production

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smooth ER

-lacks of ribosomes

-it functions in the detoxification and metabolism of multiple molecules

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golgi apparatus

transports proteins from the ER throughout the cell

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lysosomes

-intracellular digestion takes place here

-hydrolyze proteins, fats, sugars and nucleic acids

-acidic environment (ph of 4.5)

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vacuoles

membrane inclosed structures that have various functions depending on cell types

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phagocytosis

uptake food through the cell membrane creating a food vacuole

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vacuole in plant cells

functions as storage, waste disposal, protection, and hydrolysis

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two distinct organelles that produce cell energy

1. mitochondria (eukaryotic cells and are the site of cellular respiration/energy)

2. chloroplast (found in plants and are the site of photosynthesis)

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cellular membrane

-consist of a bilayer of phospholipids with proteins, cholesterol, and glycoproteins peppered throughout

-phospholipids are amphipathic molecules, creating a hydrophobic region between the two layers making it selectively permeable

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Adenosine triphosphate ATP

used as the energy currency of the cell

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nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide NADH

-acts as a reducing agent and is a vehicle of stored energy

-used as a precursor to produce greater amounts of ATP in the final steps of respiration

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glycolysis

-first step of metabolism of food cellular energy is the conversion of glucose to pyruvate

-takes place in the cytosol of the cell and produces two molecules of ATP, two molecules of pyruvate and two molecules of NADH

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citric acid cycle (Krebs Cycle)

-in step 2 the pyruvate is transported into a mitochondrion and used in the first of series of reactions

-takes place in the mitochondria

-two ATP molecules, 6 molecules of carbon dioxide and 6 NADH molecules are produced

<p>-in step 2 the pyruvate is transported into a mitochondrion and used in the first of series of reactions</p><p>-takes place in the mitochondria</p><p>-two ATP molecules, 6 molecules of carbon dioxide and 6 NADH molecules are produced</p>
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electron transport chain

3rd step begins with the oxidation of the NADH molecules to produce oxygen and finally to produce water

-for every glucose molecule 28-32 ATP molecules can be produced

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cellular respiration ATP overall production

32-36 ATP

(C6H12O6 + 6O2 --> 6CO2 + 6H2O)

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photosynthesis

6CO2 + 6H2O + light --> C6H12O6 + 6O2

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Light reaction in photosynthesis

those that convert solar energy to chemical energy

-the cell accomplishes the production of ATP by absorbing light and using that energy to split water molecules and transfer the electron thus creating NADPH and producing ATP (these molecules are then used in the Calvin Cycle to produce sugar)

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Asexual reproduction

1. binary fission

2. mitosis

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binary fission

*involves bacteria

chromosomes bind to the plasma membrane where it replicates

-then as the cell grows it pinches into two producing two identical cells

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mitosis

five phases: prophase, prometaphase, metaphase, anaphase and telephase

<p>five phases: prophase, prometaphase, metaphase, anaphase and telephase</p>
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Mitosis prophase

chromosomes are visibly separate and each duplicate chromosome has two noticeable sister chromatids

<p>chromosomes are visibly separate and each duplicate chromosome has two noticeable sister chromatids</p>
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mitosis pro-metaphase

the nuclear envelope begins to disappear and the chromosomes begin to attach to the spindle that is forming along the axis of the cell

<p>the nuclear envelope begins to disappear and the chromosomes begin to attach to the spindle that is forming along the axis of the cell</p>
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mitosis metaphase

with all chromosomes aligning along what is called the metaphase plate, or the center of the cell

<p>with all chromosomes aligning along what is called the metaphase plate, or the center of the cell</p>
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mitosis anaphase

begins when chromosomes start to separate

-chromtids are considered separate chromosomes

<p>begins when chromosomes start to separate</p><p>-chromtids are considered separate chromosomes</p>
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mitosis telophase

chromosomes gather on each side of the now separating cell

<p>chromosomes gather on each side of the now separating cell</p>
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cytokinesis

separate from the phase of mitosis

-the cell pinches in two , forming two identical cells

<p>separate from the phase of mitosis</p><p>-the cell pinches in two , forming two identical cells</p>
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Sexual reproduction

two cells contribute genetic material resulting in significantly greater variation

-these two cells find each other randomly making it virtually impossible for cells to be alike

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meiosis

consist of meiosis I and meiosis II resulting in 4 daughter cells

-each daughter cell contains half as many chromosomes as the parent

<p>consist of meiosis I and meiosis II resulting in 4 daughter cells</p><p>-each daughter cell contains half as many chromosomes as the parent</p>
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Gregor Mendal

discovered the basic of genetics; alleles

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alleles

for every trait expressed in a sexually reproducing organism, there are at least two alternative versions of a gene

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homozygous

if both alleles are the same type

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heterozygous

if the alleles are different types

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punnett square

by the use of this device, it is possible to predict the genotype and phenotype of the offspring of sexual reproduction

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phenotype

physical appearance

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genotype

genetic makeup

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DNA

the genetic material of a cell and is the vehicle of inheritance

can't be altered

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watson and crick

described the the structure of DNA

-double helix structure that contains four nitrogenous bases: adenine & thymine, guanine & cytosine

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transcription

RNA strand, complementary to the original strand of DNA, is produced

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mRNA (messenger RNA)

functions as a messenger from the original DNA helix in the nucleus to the ribosomes in the cytosol or on the rough er

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codon

every three bases along the stretch of mRNA

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tRNA (transfer RNA)

-anticodon is located here

-carries a specific amino acid

-binds to the ribosome when its codon is sliding through the ribosome

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stop codon

the chain is released into the cytoplasm and the protein folds onto itself and forms its complete conformation

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phloem

conducts water, sugar, amino acids and hormones from some source (metabolically producing or taking out of storage) to rest of the plant or to a "sink" (material is used up or taken out of circulation and put into storage)

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xylem

conducts water and minerals from the roots to the rest of the plant

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plant reproductive system

top: pistil

male reproductive parts (stamen)

-anther

-filament

female reproductive parts (carpel)

-stigma

-style

-ovary

<p>top: pistil</p><p>male reproductive parts (stamen)</p><p>-anther</p><p>-filament</p><p>female reproductive parts (carpel)</p><p>-stigma</p><p>-style</p><p>-ovary</p>
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mutualism

both symbiotic organisms benefit

<p>both symbiotic organisms benefit</p>
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commensalism

one organism benefits while neither harming nor helping the other in any significant way

<p>one organism benefits while neither harming nor helping the other in any significant way</p>
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parasitism

an organism called a parasite harms but does not kill its host

<p>an organism called a parasite harms but does not kill its host</p>
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steps of the water cycle

evaporation

condensation

precipitation

runoff/collection

percolation

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mitosis

process cells in the tip of a plant's root undergo to increase in number

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osmosis

Diffusion of water through a selectively permeable membrane

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bacteria shapes

cocci (spherical) Chlamydia, spirilli (spirals) Spirochetes, bacilli (rods) Gram positive

<p>cocci (spherical) Chlamydia, spirilli (spirals) Spirochetes, bacilli (rods) Gram positive</p>
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Transpiration

the process where plants absorb water through the roots and then give off water vapor through pores in their leaves

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intrachromosomal translocation

a segment breaks off the chromosome and rejoins it at a different location

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hierarchy of a dog example

kingdom: animalia

phylum: chordata

class: mammalia

order: carnivora

family: canidae

genus: Canis

species: lupus

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active transport

goes against its concentration gradient which means that it requires energy

low concentration to high concentration

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passive transport

does not require energy

high concentration to low concentration