HIST 1301: U.S. History Exam 1
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Bering Land Bridge
Who? Prehistoric hunter-gatherers.
What? A landmass (Beringia) connecting Siberia and Alaska.
Where? Between Asia and North America.
Why? Allowed the first human migration into the Americas.
Why do I care? It explains how the Americas were originally populated, setting the stage for Native American civilizations.
Cahokia
Who? Mississippian Native peoples.
What? A large pre-Columbian city with earthen mounds.
Where? Near present-day St. Louis, Missouri.
When? Peaked around 1100 CE, declined after 1300.
Why? Served as a major political, trade, and religious center.
Why do I care? Shows that Native Americans built complex urban societies long before European arrival.
Marco Polo
Who? Venetian merchant and traveler.
What? Wrote Travels, describing riches of Asia.
Where? Traveled across Asia to Kublai Khan’s court.
When? Late 1200s; book circulated after 1299.
Why? Sparked European interest in Asian trade goods.
Why do I care? Inspired explorers like Columbus and fueled European expansion.
Crusades
Who? European Christians vs. Muslims in the Middle East.
What? Religious wars to reclaim the Holy Land.
Where? Jerusalem and eastern Mediterranean.
When? 1095–1291.
Why? Increased contact with Asian goods like spices, silk, and sugar.
Why do I care? Created demand for cheaper trade routes, fueling Atlantic exploration.
Martin Luther
Who? German monk and theologian.
What? Wrote the Ninety-Five Theses challenging the Catholic Church.
Where? Wittenberg, Germany.
When? 1517.
Why? His protests sparked the Protestant Reformation.
Why do I care? His actions split Europe’s religions, fueling colonization and conflict in the Americas.
John Calvin
Who? French Protestant reformer.
What? Founded Calvinism, teaching predestination and strict morality.
Where? Geneva, Switzerland.
When? Mid-1500s.
Why? Spread reform to the Netherlands, Scotland, and England.
Why do I care? Influenced English Puritans who migrated to America.
Protestant Reformation
Who? Reformers like Luther and Calvin.
What? Religious movement splitting Catholic and Protestant churches.
Where? Began in Germany, spread across Europe.
When? 1500s.
Why? Weakened Catholic dominance and fueled political-religious conflict.
Why do I care? Shaped European colonization motives and divided American settlements by faith.
Puritans
Who? English Protestants seeking reform of the Church of England.
What? Wanted to “purify” church practices and worship.
Where? England → migrated to New England.
When? 1620s–1630s migration peak.
Why? Built religiously strict societies with communal values.
Why do I care? Their values and communities shaped New England culture and American identity.
Christopher Columbus
Who? Genoese explorer sailing for Spain.
What? Crossed the Atlantic seeking a route to Asia, reached the Caribbean.
Where? First voyage landed in the Bahamas and Hispaniola.
When? 1492.
Why? Opened the Americas to permanent European colonization.
Why do I care? His voyages began the Columbian Exchange and European domination of the New World.
Hernán Cortés
Who? Spanish conquistador.
What? Conquered the Aztec Empire.
Where? Tenochtitlán (present-day Mexico City).
When? 1519–1521.
Why? Used alliances and smallpox outbreaks to defeat the Aztecs.
Why do I care? His conquest secured Mexico for Spain and set the model for future conquests.
Hernando de Soto
Who? Spanish conquistador.
What? Led an expedition through the Southeast.
Where? Florida, Georgia, Carolinas, Alabama, Mississippi, Arkansas, Texas.
When? 1539–1542.
Why? Sought gold, spread disease, devastated Native communities.
Why do I care? Shows how Spanish conquest expanded beyond Mexico but caused destruction without riches.
Francisco Coronado
Who? Spanish noble and governor.
What? Led an expedition searching for the “Seven Cities of Gold.”
Where? American Southwest and Great Plains.
When? 1540–1542.
Why? Explored vast regions, fought Pueblo peoples, found no treasure.
Why do I care? Opened Southwest to Spanish claims, showed myth-driven exploration.
Samuel de Champlain
Who? French explorer.
What? Founded Quebec and built alliances with Native peoples.
Where? Canada, St. Lawrence River Valley.
When? 1608.
Why? Expanded French presence and fur trade.
Why do I care? He is the “Father of New France,” shaping French colonialism.
"Sea Dogs"
Who? English privateers like Francis Drake and John Hawkins.
What? Raided Spanish ships and colonies.
Where? Atlantic and Caribbean.
When? 1560s–1580s.
Why? Weakened Spain, enriched England, boosted naval power.
Why do I care? Showed England’s growing maritime strength and set stage for colonization.
Spanish Armada
Who? Philip II of Spain vs. Elizabeth I’s England.
What? Spanish fleet sent to invade England.
Where? English Channel.
When? 1588.
Why? Destroyed by English ships and storms, marked decline of Spain’s sea power.
Why do I care? Opened the Atlantic to English and Dutch colonization.
Walter Raleigh
Who? English courtier, explorer, colonizer.
What? Sponsored Roanoke colonies.
Where? Coast of present-day North Carolina.
When? 1580s.
Why? Promoted colonization despite failures.
Why do I care? His efforts were the first English attempts at permanent colonies.
Roanoke Island
Who? English colonists under Raleigh.
What? “Lost Colony” settlement.
Where? Outer Banks, North Carolina.
When? 1585–1590.
Why? Colonists disappeared mysteriously, only “CROATOAN” left carved.
Why do I care? Demonstrates early struggles of colonization.
Jamestown
Who? Virginia Company colonists.
What? First permanent English settlement.
Where? Virginia, along the James River.
When? 1607.
Why? Nearly failed due to disease, starvation, conflict; saved by tobacco.
Why do I care? Foundation of English America and the plantation economy.
John Smith
Who? English soldier and adventurer.
What? Early leader of Jamestown.
Where? Virginia.
When? 1608–1609.
Why? Enforced discipline, negotiated with Powhatan.
Why do I care? Helped Jamestown survive its early crises.
Pocahontas
Who? Daughter of Powhatan leader Wahunsenacawh.
What? Intermediary between English and Powhatan, married John Rolfe.
Where? Virginia.
When? Early 1600s, marriage in 1614.
Why? Symbolized temporary peace between colonists and Natives.
Why do I care? Her story represents cultural contact and mythmaking in American history.
John Rolfe
Who? English settler at Jamestown.
What? Introduced tobacco cultivation.
Where? Virginia.
When? 1612 onward.
Why? Made tobacco a profitable cash crop.
Why do I care? Tobacco saved Virginia, setting foundation for slavery-based economy.
Headright System
Who? Virginia Company and settlers.
What? Land grants for financing immigration.
Where? Virginia (later other colonies).
When? Began in 1618.
Why? Encouraged indentured servitude and settlement.
Why do I care? Shaped class divisions and labor systems.
Opechancanough
Who? Powhatan leader (brother of Wahunsenacawh).
What? Led Native attacks on English.
Where? Virginia.
When? 1622 and 1644 uprisings.
Why? Tried to expel settlers, failed after defeats.
Why do I care? Marked the collapse of Native resistance in Virginia.
Sir William Berkeley
Who? Governor of Virginia.
What? Favored elites, resisted expansion.
Where? Virginia.
When? 1640s–1670s.
Why? His policies triggered Bacon’s Rebellion.
Why do I care? Shows tensions between poor farmers and elites.
Bacon's Rebellion
Who? Nathaniel Bacon and frontier farmers.
What? Revolt against Governor Berkeley.
Where? Virginia.
When? 1676.
Why? Anger over Native raids, taxes, and favoritism.
Why do I care? Encouraged transition from indentured servants to African slavery.
Powhatan
Who? Paramount chief in Virginia.
What? Controlled alliance of Native tribes.
Where? Tidewater Virginia.
When? Early 1600s.
Why? Alternated trade and war with colonists.
Why do I care? His leadership shaped early colonial-Native relations.
John Locke
Who? English Enlightenment philosopher.
What? Wrote about natural rights and social contract.
Where? England.
When? 1600s.
Why? Inspired ideas of liberty and government by consent.
Why do I care? His theories influenced the American Revolution.
James Oglethorpe
Who? English soldier and philanthropist.
What? Founded Georgia colony.
Where? Georgia.
When? 1733.
Why? Created buffer colony and refuge for debtors.
Why do I care? Last of original 13 colonies; early debates over slavery.
Mayflower
Who? Pilgrims (Separatist Puritans).
What? Ship that carried them to New World.
Where? From England to Cape Cod.
When? 1620.
Why? Transported first permanent New England settlers.
Why do I care? Symbol of religious migration and founding story.
Plymouth Plantation
Who? Pilgrims/Separatists.
What? Small colony founded for religious freedom.
Where? Massachusetts.
When? 1620.
Why? Survived through Native aid, early self-government.
Why do I care? Laid groundwork for New England identity.
William Bradford
Who? Leader of the Pilgrims.
What? Governor of Plymouth for decades, wrote Of Plymouth Plantation.
Where? Plymouth, Massachusetts.
When? Governed from 1621 until his death in 1657.
Why? Guided the colony’s survival and recorded its history.
Why do I care? Provides a firsthand account of early colonial life and leadership.
John Winthrop
Who? Puritan leader.
What? Governor of Massachusetts Bay, preacher of “city upon a hill.”
Where? Massachusetts Bay Colony.
When? 1630s–1640s.
Why? Promoted strict religious society as an example to the world.
Why do I care? Defines Puritan influence on American identity.
"A Model of Christian Charity"
Who? John Winthrop.
What? Sermon about communal responsibility and religious purpose.
Where? Delivered aboard the Arbella ship.
When? 1630.
Why? Called Puritans to live as a moral example (“city upon a hill”).
Why do I care? Early statement of America’s sense of mission.
Massachusetts Bay Company
Who? Group of Puritan investors.
What? Joint-stock company that established the colony.
Where? Massachusetts/New England.
When? Charter granted in 1629.
Why? Gave Puritans unusual independence from England.
Why do I care? Set precedent for colonial self-government.
Roger Williams
Who? Puritan minister.
What? Critic of Puritan leadership; advocate for religious freedom.
Where? Banished from Massachusetts; founded Rhode Island.
When? 1636.
Why? Opposed church-state ties, promoted toleration.
Why do I care? Pioneered religious liberty in America.
Anne Hutchinson
Who? Puritan woman and spiritual leader.
What? Challenged ministers’ authority in Massachusetts.
Where? Massachusetts, then Rhode Island.
When? Banished in 1637.
Why? Her dissent revealed limits of Puritan tolerance.
Why do I care? Example of early female religious and political dissent.
King Philip's War
Who? Metacom (King Philip) vs. New England colonists.
What? Brutal Native-colonist conflict.
Where? New England.
When? 1675–1676.
Why? Devastated both sides; ended Native power in region.
Why do I care? Deadliest war (per capita) in colonial America.
New Netherland
Who? Dutch West India Company.
What? Dutch colony focused on trade.
Where? Present-day New York, New Jersey, Delaware.
When? 1624–1664.
Why? Fell to English, renamed New York.
Why do I care? Left lasting Dutch cultural and economic influence.
New Sweden
Who? Swedish settlers.
What? Small colony.
Where? Delaware River Valley.
When? 1638–1655.
Why? Conquered by Dutch, then English.
Why do I care? Shows competition for control in early America.
Dutch East India Company
Who? Dutch merchants/investors.
What? Powerful trading corporation.
Where? Operated globally, including Asia and Atlantic.
When? Founded in 1602.
Why? Financed colonization and trade empires.
Why do I care? Model of corporate-driven colonization.
Iroquois Federation
Who? Confederacy of five (later six) Iroquois nations.
What? Powerful Native alliance.
Where? Upstate New York.
When? Formed before European contact; influential in 1600s–1700s.
Why? Balanced power between Europeans through diplomacy.
Why do I care? Demonstrates Native agency in colonial politics.
William Penn
Who? English Quaker.
What? Founded Pennsylvania.
Where? Pennsylvania colony.
When? Charter granted in 1681.
Why? Promoted religious tolerance and fair treatment of Natives.
Why do I care? Created one of the most diverse and democratic colonies.
English Civil War
Who? King Charles I vs. Parliament.
What? Armed conflict over monarchy and rights.
Where? England.
When? 1642–1651.
Why? Ended in execution of Charles I and brief republic.
Why do I care? Disrupted colonization and inspired ideas about liberty.
Mercantile System
Who? European empires.
What? Economic theory that colonies exist to enrich the mother country.
Where? Atlantic world.
When? 1600s–1700s.
Why? Drove colonization and trade restrictions.
Why do I care? Basis for laws that angered colonists before Revolution.
Navigation Acts
Who? English Parliament.
What? Laws restricting colonial trade to English ships/ports.
Where? Colonies and England.
When? 1651–1663.
Why? Enforced mercantilism, limited colonial trade freedom.
Why do I care? First major source of colonial resentment.
Navigation Act of 1696
Who? English Parliament.
What? Strengthened enforcement of trade laws.
Where? Colonies.
When? 1696.
Why? Created vice-admiralty courts for smugglers.
Why do I care? Expanded imperial control, eroded colonial autonomy.
Glorious Revolution
Who? William and Mary replacing James II.
What? Bloodless overthrow of monarchy.
Where? England.
When? 1688.
Why? Established constitutional monarchy.
Why do I care? Inspired colonial uprisings and strengthened Parliament’s model of limited monarchy.
Salutary Neglect
Who? British government.
What? Policy of lax enforcement of trade laws.
Where? American colonies.
When? Early 1700s.
Why? Allowed colonies to self-govern with little interference.
Why do I care? When ended, colonists resisted British control.
Marquette and Joliet
Who? French priest and explorer.
What? Explored Mississippi River.
Where? Great Lakes to Arkansas.
When? 1673.
Why? Mapped river, expanded French claims.
Why do I care? Advanced France’s foothold in North America.
Sieur de La Salle
Who? French explorer.
What? Explored Mississippi to Gulf of Mexico.
Where? Mississippi River Valley.
When? 1682.
Why? Claimed Louisiana for France.
Why do I care? Extended French empire in North America.
French and Indian War
Who? Britain and colonies vs. France and Native allies.
What? Colonial front of Seven Years War.
Where? North America (Ohio Valley, Canada).
When? 1754–1763.
Why? British victory reshaped control of continent.
Why do I care? Set stage for colonial taxes and Revolution.
George Washington
Who? Young Virginian officer.
What? Sparked war with skirmish at Fort Necessity.
Where? Great Meadows, Pennsylvania.
When? 1754.
Why? His defeat ignited French and Indian War.
Why do I care? Early role foreshadows leadership in Revolution.
Great Meadows
Who? George Washington vs. French forces.
What? Site of Washington’s early defeat.
Where? Western Pennsylvania.
When? 1754.
Why? First battle of French and Indian War.
Why do I care? Shows how local disputes escalated into global war.
Albany Congress
Who? Colonial delegates (Benjamin Franklin) and Iroquois.
What? Meeting to discuss defense/unity.
Where? Albany, New York.
When? 1754.
Why? Proposed Albany Plan of Union (rejected).
Why do I care? First serious step toward colonial cooperation.
Battle of Quebec
Who? British vs. French forces.
What? Decisive battle for Canada.
Where? Quebec City.
When? 1759.
Why? British victory ensured control of Canada.
Why do I care? Turned tide of war in Britain’s favor.
"Annus Mirabilis"
Who? Britain.
What? “Year of Miracles” with major victories.
Where? Globally, including North America.
When? 1759.
Why? Britain triumphed in key battles.
Why do I care? Marked turning point in Seven Years’ War.
King George III
Who? King of Great Britain.
What? Monarch during colonial unrest and Revolution.
Where? Britain/colonies.
When? Reigned 1760–1820.
Why? Oversaw empire’s expansion and loss of American colonies.
Why do I care? The king colonists rebelled against.
Pontiac's Rebellion
Who? Native leader Pontiac vs. British forts.
What? Native uprising after French defeat.
Where? Great Lakes and Ohio Valley.
When? 1763.
Why? Anger at British expansion, ended with compromise.
Why do I care? Led to Proclamation of 1763 limiting westward settlement.
Peace of Paris
Who? Britain, France, Spain.
What? Treaty ending Seven Years’ War.
Where? Signed in Paris.
When? 1763.
Why? Britain gained Canada, Florida; France lost most North American claims.
Why do I care? Redrew map of North America.
Proclamation of 1763
Who? British government.
What? Forbade colonists from settling west of Appalachians.
Where? North American frontier.
When? 1763.
Why? Attempt to prevent Native conflict after Pontiac’s Rebellion.
Why do I care? Angered colonists, fueling tensions with Britain.