Time Period 2

Dutch revolt

aka Eighty Years War, 1568 to 1648 , northern provinces of the Spanish Netherlands sought independence from Spanish rule. Began due to heavy taxation by Philip II and religious persecution against protestants, played a crucial role in the rise of Dutch power in trade and commerce, leading to the establishment of the Dutch Republic as a major European power.

bank of Amsterdam

established in 1609, central bank that played a crucial role in the financial revolution of the early modern period. facilitated international trade through a stable currency and secure deposit facilities, helped to boost commerce and investment during the Commercial Revolution. set the standard for modern banking systems across Europe.

dutch East India company

established in 1602, powerful trading corporation with a role in global commerce during the 17th century. granted a monopoly on Dutch trade in Asia and helped the competition for colonial dominance, impacting both the economy of the Netherlands and the larger context of European exploration and imperialism.First multinational corporation in history and helped establish Dutch dominance during the 17th century

joint-stock companies

business entities where multiple investors pool their resources to fund a project, sharing profits and risks. crucial during periods of exploration and expansion, as it allowed for larger ventures with limited liability, ultimately facilitating the growth of global trade networks and shaping economic practices in Europe.

golden age

period of great prosperity, cultural flourishing, and significant achievements in various fields, often marked by advancements in art, science, and economy. This concept can be linked to several historical contexts where a civilization or region experiences remarkable progress and success, shaping its legacy for future generations.

william of nassau/orange

a key figure in the late 17th century, played a significant role in the Glorious Revolution, which resulted in the overthrow of King James II. His ascension to the English throne marked a shift toward constitutional monarchy and set the stage for a new balance of power within Europe, establishing parliamentary sovereignty over royal authority.

jan vermeer

Dutch painter, 17th century, masterful use of light and color in creating intimate domestic scenes. important artist of the Dutch Golden Age, reflecting the period's wealth, cultural richness, and advancements in art techniques. works convey a sense of tranquility and detail, which makes them distinctive among other artists of his time. Ex. Girl with a Pearl Earring

rembrandt van rijn

Dutch painter and etcher, Dutch Golden Age. masterful use of light and shadow, known as chiaroscuro, and his ability to capture the human emotion and condition through portraiture distinguished him in a time when Dutch art flourished and saw a rise in individualism. Depicted everyday life and biblical scenes

Scholasticism

method of learning that emphasized dialectical reasoning and sought to reconcile faith with reason, particularly within the context of Christian theology. Influenced both the Renaissance and the Age of Discovery by laying the groundwork for later philosophical and scientific inquiries.

Thomas Aquinas

major figure in Scholasticism, he sought to synthesize Aristotelian philosophy with Christian theology, significantly influencing Western thought.

alchemy

ancient practice aimed at transforming base metals into noble metals, as well as searching for the philosopher's stone and the elixir of life. challenged traditional beliefs and contributed to the emergence of a more empirical approach to understanding the natural world

ptolemy

Greco-Roman mathematician, astronomer, and geographer that greatly influenced the scientific understanding of the universe during the medieval period and into the Renaissance. geocentric model of the universe, articulated in his seminal work 'Almagest,' positioned the Earth at the center of the universe, a view that dominated Western thought for over a millennium.

Nicholas Copernicus

Renaissance mathematician and astronomer who formulated a model of the universe that placed the Sun rather than the Earth at its center, challenging the geocentric view that had dominated for centuries. paved the way for the Scientific Revolution and significantly influenced Enlightenment thought, as they prompted deeper questioning of traditional beliefs about nature and the cosmos.

Heliocentrism

astronomical model that places the Sun at the center of the solar system, with Earth and other planets orbiting around it. marked a radical shift from the previously dominant geocentric model and challenged long-standing beliefs and played a pivotal role in the scientific revolution, promoting a new understanding of our place in the cosmos and inspiring further inquiry into the laws governing celestial bodies.

Galileo Galilei

Italian astronomer, physicist, and mathematician who played a pivotal role in the Scientific Revolution during the 16th and 17th centuries. His use of the telescope to observe celestial bodies and his support for the Copernican heliocentric model challenged traditional views of the universe and laid the groundwork for modern science.

Johannes Kepler

German mathematician and astronomer known for his groundbreaking laws of planetary motion that challenged the traditional geocentric models of the universe. His work laid the foundation for modern astronomy and the shift from a mystical view of the cosmos to a more scientific understanding, which is a hallmark of the Scientific Revolution.

Isaac Newton

English mathematician, physicist, and astronomer who is widely regarded as one of the most influential scientists of all time. His work laid the foundations for classical mechanics, gravitation, and calculus, playing a pivotal role in the Scientific Revolution and shaping Enlightenment thought.

royal absolutism

16th and 17th centuries when monarchs consolidated power, often claiming divine right to rule, leading to centralized government and diminished power of nobility and other governing bodies.

cardinal Richelieu

French clergyman and statesman who served as the chief minister to King Louis XIII from 1624 until his death in 1642. role in strengthening the power of the monarchy and laying the groundwork for absolute rule in France. Implemented policies that reduced the power of the nobility while promoting royal authority

Louis XIV

aka Sun King, King of France from 1643 until his death in 1715, absolute monarchy and the centralization of power in France. expanded French influence in Europe and centralized authority, impacting political structures and state relations across the continent. Saw significant military campaigns but strained French resources, promoted mercantilism, and set trends in art.

Divine right of kings

significantly shaped the political landscape by providing monarchs with a divine justification for their absolute authority. Rulers like Louis XIV utilized this doctrine to centralize power and eliminate opposition, believing their decisions were sanctioned by God.

Versailles

grand royal residence located near Paris, originally a hunting lodge for Louis XIII, later transformed and expanded by Louis XIV into a symbol of absolute monarchy and the center of political power in France. Reduced the power of the court because they were made to live there

Jean-Baptiste Colbert

French statesman who served as the Minister of Finances under King Louis XIV , 1665 to 1683. promoted mercantilism, a policy aimed at strengthening the French economy through state intervention, regulation of trade, and the establishment of a favorable balance of trade. significantly impacted France's economic landscape and supported the broader goals of absolute monarchy during this period.

war of Spanish Succession

arose over who would inherit the Spanish throne after childless Charles II of Spain died. involved several France, Spain, England, the Dutch Republic, and Austria, as they battled over the potential unification of the French and Spanish crowns under the Bourbons, which threatened the balance of power in Europe. significant implications for colonial rivalry as it extended to overseas territories, impacting trade routes and colonial holdings.

treaty of Utrecht

signed in 1713 and ended the War of Spanish Succession. Philip V was king of Spain but forbidden from inheriting the French Throne. Redistributed territories as territories was ceded from Spain to other powers and French hegemony. Influenced colonial rivalries.

Price revolution

period of sustained inflation in Europe during the 16th and early 17th centuries, marked by a significant increase in prices of goods and services. This inflation was largely driven by the influx of precious metals from the New World, which disrupted traditional economic practices and had profound impacts on society, trade, and economies across Europe.

english poor law

a series of legislative acts, 16th to the 19th centuries , aimed at addressing poverty and providing assistance to the poor in England. local parishes were responsible for the care of the needy, determining eligibility for aid, and regulating workhouses where the poor could live and receive support. They reflect significant social attitudes towards poverty and the evolving relationship between the government and its citizens.

Estates General

legislative assembly in France representing the three estates of the realm: the clergy, the nobility, and the common people. This assembly played a crucial role in the lead-up to the French Revolution, as it was convened by King Louis XVI in 1789 to address the financial crisis facing France and resulted in significant political upheaval.

Emmanuel Joseph Sieyes

French clergyman and political theorist who played a crucial role during the French Revolution, particularly known for his influential pamphlet 'What is the Third Estate?' which argued for the rights and representation of the common people. His ideas on the importance of the Third Estate laid the groundwork for the rise of popular sovereignty and later influenced Napoleon's consolidation of power.

Tennis Court Oath

June 20, 1789 in a tennis court after the third estate was locked out of a meeting, members pledged to remain united until they created a constitution that would limit the power of the king and guarantee individual rights. direct challenge to king Louis XVI’s authority.

Storming of Bastille

July 14, 1789, pivotal event in the French Revolution where revolutionaries attacked the fortress prison in Paris, uprising against the monarchy and tyranny. This event marked the beginning of widespread rebellion and became a powerful symbol of the fight for liberty and justice, connecting deeply to the broader effects of the French Revolution.

Reign of Terror

period during the French Revolution from September 1793 to July 1794, extreme political repression and mass executions of perceived enemies of the revolution. led primarily by the Jacobins and their leader, Maximilien Robespierre, who believed that terror was necessary to protect the revolutionary government and achieve its goals. pivotal shift in the revolution, where radical measures were taken to eliminate opposition and consolidate power.

Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen

1789, document of the French Revolution that outlines the individual and collective rights of all citizens. liberty, equality, and fraternity, which became cornerstones for modern democratic societies. served as an inspiration for other democratic movements around the world and established a framework for civil rights that challenged the existing monarchic and aristocratic privileges.

Olympe de Gouges

French playwright and political activist , advocated of women's rights during the French Revolution. remembered for her work 'Declaration of the Rights of Woman and the Female Citizen,' that challenged the traditional roles of women in society and called for gender equality. emphasized that the rights declared in 1789 should extend to all citizens, regardless of gender.

Jacobins

members of a political club that played a significant role in the French revolution. They were radical, pushing for a Republic and supported the reign of terror. Led by figures like Maximilien Robespierre

sans-culottes

ordinary people in society, particularly those who are not part of the elite or ruling class. In the context of the French Revolution, these individuals played a crucial role as they sought to challenge the existing social and political hierarchy, advocating for rights and representation.

Edmund Burke

Irish statesman, political theorist, and philosopher, known for his critique of the French Revolution and his advocacy for conservative principles. His work emphasized the importance of tradition, gradual change, and the dangers of radicalism, making him a key figure in shaping conservative thought in response to the upheaval caused by revolutionary movements in Europe.

Girondins

More moderate perspective, advocated for constitutional monarchy, critical of the Jacobins radical actions and wanted a balanced government. lossely organized group

Committe of Public Safety

a political body during the French Revolution established in April 1793 to protect the Republic from internal and external threats. crucial role in the Reign of Terror, overseeing the execution of perceived enemies and implementing policies to safeguard the revolutionary government. synonymous with radical measures and significant government control, shaping the course of the Revolution.

Georges Danton

leading figure in the early stages of the French Revolution and a co-founder of the Cordeliers Club. role in the establishment of the First French Republic, charisma and oratory skills that inspired revolutionary fervor. fell victim to the very radicalism he helped promote. He was a prominent advocate for the revolution, calling for the execution of the king and supporting the Reign of Terror before being executed himself.

Maximilien Robespierre

role as a radical leader of the Jacobin Club and his influence during the Reign of Terror. He was a strong advocate for revolutionary ideals and pushed for social justice, equality, and the establishment of a Republic of Virtue, but his leadership also led to widespread executions and the consolidation of power that ultimately resulted in his downfall.

Cult of the Supreme Being

state religion introduced by Maximilian Robespierre to replace Catholicism, focused on reason, Virtue, and the inherent goodness of humanity rather than traditional Christian beliefs

The Directory

e governing body of France from 1795 to 1799, established after the National Convention and preceding the rise of Napoleon Bonaparte. It represented a reaction against the radicalism of the Reign of Terror and aimed to create a more moderate and stable government, though it was marked by corruption and political instability.

Napolean Bonaparte

French military leader and emperor who rose to prominence during the French Revolution, eventually becoming the ruler of much of Europe in the early 19th century. His influence on military strategy, governance, and legal reform significantly shaped modern Europe and its political landscape. First consul and expanded French territory

First Consul

title given to Napoleon Bonaparte following his rise to power in France after the coup of 18 Brumaire in 1799. This position marked the beginning of his authoritarian rule and laid the groundwork for the establishment of the French Empire. Gave him executive authority

Napoleanic Code

laws established by Napoleon Bonaparte, reformed the French legal system. sought to unify and simplify legal codes across France, reflected Enlightenment principles like equality before the law and the protection of property rights, reinforcing patriarchal authority and centralizing state power. Abolished feudalism and emphasized protection of private property while favoring male authority in marriages/inheritance.

battle of Trafalgar

pivotal naval engagement fought on October 21, 1805, during the Napoleonic Wars, where the British Royal Navy achieved a decisive victory over the combined fleets of France and Spain. confirmed British naval superiority but also thwarted Napoleon's plans to invade Britain, marking a turning point in the conflict and establishing Britain as the dominant maritime power for the next century.

Continental system

economic blockade imposed by Napoleon Bonaparte in 1806 aimed at weakening Great Britain by prohibiting European nations from trading with them. strategy to establish French dominance in Europe and promote nationalism among his allies while undermining British economic power., faced challenges as countries resisted compliance, leading to widespread smuggling and dissatisfaction.

Stuart dynasty

dynasty that ruled England, Scotland, and Ireland from the late 16th century until the 18th century, known for their attempts at absolute monarchy and conflicts with Parliament. This period included significant events like the English Civil War, which showcased the struggle between royal authority and parliamentary power.

King James VI of Scotland

1567 to 1625, was the first monarch to rule both Scotland and England after the Union of the Crowns in 1603. His reign marked significant political and religious shifts, which laid the groundwork for later conflicts during the English Civil War and the Glorious Revolution. divine right of kings and attempts to unify the two kingdoms played crucial roles in shaping early modern British politics.

House of Commons

lower house of Parliament, made up of Members of Parliament (MPs) who are elected by the public, responsible for proposing and debating legislation.

House of Lords

upper house of Parliament, composed of appointed members including life peers, bishops, and hereditary peers, that reviews legislation proposed by the House of Commons.

Puritans

English Protestants in the 16th and 17th centuries who sought to 'purify' the Church of England from Catholic practices, believed in strict religious discipline and moral living. wave of Protestant reform that aimed to create a more personal and direct relationship with God, emphasizing scripture and the importance of individual conscience

Charles I

monarch of England, Scotland, and Ireland from 1625 until his execution in 1649. known for his conflict with Parliament, which led to the English Civil War and ultimately his downfall, highlighting the struggle for power between the monarchy and parliamentary authority in early modern Britain.

Petition of Rights

England, 1628, limited the powers of the king and safeguard the rights of subjects against arbitrary rule. due to King Charles I's abuses of power, addressing issues such as taxation without parliamentary consent, unlawful imprisonment, and the quartering of soldiers in private homes groundwork for future constitutional developments and highlighted the ongoing struggle between monarchy and parliamentary authority during a period marked by civil unrest and the eventual English Civil War.

Personal Rule of Charles

Period from 1629 to 1650 where King Charles I of England governed without calling parliament and bypassed traditional legislative processes. Also attempted to strengthen royal authority and promote policies that favored his views. Led to increased tensions between monarchy and political factions which helped lead to the English Civil war and influenced the Glorious revolution

Long parliament

period of the English Parliament that lasted from 1640 to 1660, during which significant political conflicts between the monarchy and Parliament unfolded, leading to the English Civil War and the eventual establishment of a constitutional monarchy. It emerged in response to King Charles I's attempts to govern without Parliament and became crucial in asserting parliamentary power and civil rights against royal authority.

English Revolution

encompassing both the English Civil War and the Glorious Revolution, refers to a period of profound political and social change in 17th-century England, marked by conflicts between the monarchy and Parliament. These events led to the establishment of a constitutional monarchy and limited the power of the king. 

Oliver Cromwell

military and political leader during the English Civil War, known for leading the Parliamentarian forces against King Charles I and later ruling as Lord Protector of England from 1653 until his death in 1658. His actions and policies played a critical role in transforming England's governance and set the stage for later constitutional developments.

The commonwealth republic

political system in England after the English Civil War, absence of a monarchy and the governance of the country through elected representatives. emerged in the mid-17th century, primarily under the leadership of Oliver Cromwell, who served as Lord Protector and led a Puritanical regime that sought to implement reforms in both politics and society through strict Puritanical laws.

Independents vs presbyterians

branch of Protestant Christianity that emphasizes the sovereignty of God, the authority of Scripture, and the necessity of grace through faith. It is characterized by a system of church governance led by elected elders, known as presbyters, and it originated from the teachings of John Calvin during the Reformation in the 16th century, playing a significant role in shaping Protestant reform movements.

Charles II

King of England, Scotland, and Ireland from 1660 to 1685, restoration to the throne after the English Civil War and promoted a more liberal and hedonistic court culture. made significant political and social changes, like the establishment of constitutional monarchy principles and the transition toward a more absolutist approach to power. Favored catholics and promoted arts.

James II

King of England, Scotland, and Ireland from 1685 until he was deposed in 1688 in the Glorious Revolution. attempts to promote Catholicism and strengthen royal power, led to opposition from Parliament and Protestant factions, resulting in his overthrow and the establishment of constitutional monarchy. Fled to France after William of Orange landed in England.

Glorious Revolution

1688 , led to the overthrow of King James II of England and the ascension of William III and Mary II to the throne, shift towards constitutional monarchy. peaceful transition of power established parliamentary sovereignty and limited the powers of the monarchy. Influenced by fears of Catholic absolutism.

The English Bill of Rights

enacted in 1689, outlined the rights and liberties of English citizens while limiting the powers of the monarchy. emerged from the conflicts during the English Civil War and the Glorious Revolution, establishing parliamentary sovereignty and influenced the development of constitutional monarchy in Britain. Response to abuses of power by king James ii.

The Act of Toleration

law passed in 1689 in England that granted religious freedom to Protestant dissenters, allowing them to worship freely outside of the Church of England. shift towards greater religious tolerance but still did not completely eliminate discrimination

Short parliament

English Parliament convened by King Charles I in April 1640, response to the financial crisis and the need for funds to suppress the Scottish rebellion , had conflicts between Parliament and the king over issues of authority and governance. illustrated the growing tensions between monarchy and parliamentary power that ultimately contributed to the outbreak of the English Civil War.

Francis Bacon

English philosopher and statesman, developed the empirical method and promoted the scientific approach to knowledge. advocated for a systematic methodology based on observation and experimentation, emphasizing that knowledge should be acquired through inductive reasoning rather than reliance on tradition or authority.

inductive reasoning

logical process in which generalizations are made based on specific observations or instances. crucial during the Scientific Revolution, as thinkers gather empirical evidence through experimentation and observation, leading to broader scientific conclusions. contrasts with deductive reasoning

Rene Descartes

French philosopher, mathematician, and scientist, father of modern philosophy. ‘I think, therefore I am’, emphasized doubt and reason as the path to knowledge. e groundwork for the Scientific Revolution and the Enlightenment by advocating for a rational approach to understanding the world, influencing thinkers in both realms.

deductive reasoning

logical process where conclusions are drawn from general principles or premises to reach specific instances. This method was crucial during the Scientific Revolution, as thinkers applied it to test hypotheses and derive conclusions based on established theories, fostering a more systematic approach to scientific inquiry.

Blaise Pascal

French mathematician, physicist, and philosopher, contributed to the fields of mathematics and the development of probability theory. laid groundwork for modern scientific thought. made advancements in math through projective geometry, modern probability theory. ‘Pensées’ discuses the conflict between faith and reason.

Thomas Hobbes

English philosopher ,'Leviathan,' where he argues for a strong central authority to avoid the chaos of human nature. emphasized the necessity of an absolute sovereign for maintaining peace and order. Pessimistic view of human nature and advocated for absolute monarchy

William Harvey

English physician groundbreaking contributions to the understanding of the circulatory system, discovery of blood circulation through the body. work challenged centuries of accepted medical beliefs and laid the groundwork for modern physiology, shift during a time when empirical observation and scientific inquiry were beginning to reshape how people viewed the natural world.

John Locke

a 17th-century English philosopher, ideas on government, individual rights, and the social contract significantly influenced modern political thought. His concepts of natural rights and government by consent laid the groundwork for constitutionalism and challenged absolute monarchies, shaping the Enlightenment and later revolutionary movements. ;two treatises of Government’ advocated for government accountability to people

Social contract

philosophical concept that suggests individuals consent to form an organized society and government in exchange for protection of their rights and maintenance of order. links the legitimacy of political authority to the consent of the governed, emphasizing the mutual responsibilities between rulers and citizens. Influcned philosophers like Hobbes, Lock, and Rousseau

Lady Mary Wortley Montagu

English aristocrat, writer, and advocate for smallpox inoculation in the 18th century. had letters and writings that offered insight into the lives of women and the practice of vaccination, challenged contemporary medical beliefs and social norms. Addressed medical issues and examined the role/perceptions of women in society

Johann Sebastian Bach

German composer and musician of the Baroque period, intricate compositions and mastery of various musical forms. cantatas, concertos, and orchestral suites, exemplify the complexities of Baroque music and reflect the cultural richness of 18th-century Europe, influencing generations of musicians and composers that followed.

Caravaggio

Italian Baroque painter, dramatic use of light and shadow, a technique called chiaroscuro, and for his realistic portrayal of human figures and emotions. influenced the Baroque style significantly, pivotal figure in the transition from Mannerism to Baroque art, and leaving a lasting impact on 18th-century culture and arts. Famous for painting religious subjects

Voltaire

French Enlightenment writer, historian, emphasized reason, individual rights, and skepticism towards traditional authorities like church/monarchy, criticized the dogma, ‘Candide’ critiqued optimism, made satires against the church, believed in religious tolerance

deism

philosophical belief, the existence of a supreme being who created the universe but does not intervene in its operation or in human affairs. emphasized reason and observation of the natural world rather than religious dogma. idea that moral and ethical principles could be derived from nature and reason. Believed by Voltaire.

baron de Montesquieu

French political philosopher., greatly influenced modern political thought, 'The Spirit of the Laws.' argued for the separation of powers within governments, foundational concept for modern democracies. emphasized the importance of checks and balances to prevent any one branch from gaining too much power, influencing the development of political systems in Europe and beyond.

Denis Diderot

French philosopher, art critic, and writer, co-founder and chief editor of the 'Encyclopédie,' that aimed to compile and disseminate knowledge during the Enlightenment. Advocated for freedom of expression and centralized censorship, materialistic philosophy where humans were shaped by their environments

Jean-Jacques Rousseau

18th-century philosopher, ideas about the social contract, individual freedom, and the natural goodness of humanity. ‘The Social contract’ believed in the concept of general will. Believed in human goodness. ‘Noble savage’. Advocated for education that respects children’s instincts.

Immanuel Kant

German philosopher , role in the Enlightenment, works on metaphysics, epistemology, ethics, and aesthetics. He challenged traditional views and emphasized reason as the primary source of knowledge, 'Dare to know.’ Argued that democratic states were less likely to engage in wars with each other.

Cesare Beccaria

Italian Enlightenment thinker, "On Crimes and Punishments" (1764), critiqued existing criminal justice practices and advocated for a more rational, humane, and just system. a founder of classical criminology, emphasizing the importance of deterrence and proportional punishment. significant impact on criminal justice reform, particularly in Europe and the United States. 

David Hume

Scottish philosopher, historian, and economist, contributions to empiricism and skepticism in the 18th century. challenged traditional philosophical ideas, especially concerning human understanding, knowledge, and the nature of reality, ‘A Treaties of Human Nature’ explore limits of human knowledge, though that human beliefs were based and critiqued religion. Promoted naturalistic views.

Adam Smith

18th-century Scottish economist and philosopher best known for his work 'The Wealth of Nations,' where he laid the foundations of classical economics. ideas about free markets, competition, and the division of labor significantly influenced economic thought and policies, impacting various social, political, and industrial developments across Europe. Critiqued mercantilism

Laissez faire

economic theory that promotes minimal government intervention in the economy, allowing individuals and businesses to operate freely. encourages competition and innovation by believing that the free market can regulate itself through supply and demand. key principle that shaped policies and practices in the 18th and 19th centuries.

Mary Wollstonecraft

English writer, philosopher, and advocate for women's rights during the late 18th century. , 'A Vindication of the Rights of Woman,' argues for the education and empowerment of women, positioning her as a pivotal figure in early feminist thought and the Enlightenment era. Argued that women only seemed inferior to men because they lack education.

Enlightened absolutists

form of absolute monarchy, emerged in the 18th century, rulers sought to apply Enlightenment principles of reason, progress while maintaining absolute power. allowed monarchs to implement reforms in administration, education, and society, all while retaining control over their states. Legal reforms, increased religious tolerance, and efforts to promote education and economic development

Frederick II of Prussia

king who ruled from 1740 to 1786 had military victories, his role in the Enlightenment, and his effective administrative reforms. He embodied the principles of enlightened absolutism, merging the authority of a monarch with ideas of rational governance and individual rights. Implemented significant reforms in agriculture, education, and legal system.

Joseph II of Austria

Holy Roman Emperor and the eldest son of Empress Maria Theresa, ambitious reforms aimed at modernizing the Habsburg Empire through Enlightenment ideas. 1765 to 1790, attempted to centralize authority, promote religious tolerance, and implement social and economic reforms, reflecting the characteristics of enlightened absolutism. Ended censorship and promoted freedom of worship

War of the Austrian Succession

conflict in Europe that erupted over the question of Maria Theresa's right to succeed to the Habsburg throne after the death of her father, Charles VI. countries navigated the balance of power and state-building efforts following the Peace of Westphalia. Britain supported Austira and France supported Prussia and Spain.

Seven Years War

global conflict that lasted from 1756 to 1763, British emerged as a colonial superpower but it strained its finances and lead to increased tax’s. major powers clashing across Europe, North America, and India, territorial gains for Britain and France while straining their economies. It marked the beginning of British colonial supremacy but led to increased tensions with American colonies due to rising taxes.

Romanov Dynasty

last imperial dynasty to rule Russia, 1613 until the abdication of Tsar Nicholas II in 1917 during the Russian Revolution. crucial role in shaping Russian history and politics through its expansionist policies, autocratic governance, and complex relationships with Europe. Expanded Russian territory and helped Russia become a major European power.

Peter the Great

Tsar of Russia from 1682 until 1725, His reign had a significant transformation in Russian state-building, economic policies, and approaches to governance that reflected the absolute power he wielded. Embarked on a tour to learn about Western technologies which influenced his reforms on Russia. Expanded the Russian empire through military campaigns. More centralized government.

St. Petersburg

city founded by Peter the Great in 1703 that became the new capital of Russia and a symbol of his efforts to modernize and westernize the country.

Great Northern War

conflict that lasted from 1700 to 1721, primarily involving a coalition led by Peter the Great of Russia against Charles XII of Sweden. significant shift in the balance of power in Northern Europe, as it ultimately led to the decline of Swedish dominance and the rise of Russia as a major European power, showcasing absolutist approaches to governance and military strategy.

Catherine the Great of Russia

Empress of Russia from 1762-1796, expanded Russian territories through successful military campaigns, enhanced Russia’s status as a major European power, sought to implement reforms inspired by Enlightenment ideas, enlightened absolutism. Implemented reforms in education, law, and government administration