Biology

MCAR

Nucleoid

DNA location for prokaryotes

Nucleolus

Creates ribosomes

Peroxisomes

Break down waste

Rough ER

Creates proteins from mRNA and processes them

Smooth ER

Creates lipids and detoxifies

Golgi body

Modify/sort proteins (COPII brings vesicles from ER to golgi and COPI brings vesicles from golgi to membrane)

Centrioles

9 microTUBULUES that pull chromosomes apart

Lysosomes

Recycling center

Plasmids

Circular DNA in prokaryotes

Microfilaments are made of _ and do what?

Actin, act like muscles

Microtubules are made of _ and do what?

TUBulin, support/highway

Intermediate filaments are made of _ and do what?

Keratin and Desmin, adhesion/anchoring/structure against tension

Gap junctions allow for

cell to cell communication through connexons, water/some solutes/signaling NO PROTEINS

Tight junctions prevent

solutes from leaking between cells, also creates a voltage difference

Desmosomes allow

cells to withstand mechanical stress, velcro

Parenchyma refers to the

functional parts of an organ

Simple:

Stratified:

Pseudostratified:

Cuboidal:

Columnar:

Squamous:

Simple: 1 layer.

Stratified: 2+ layers.

Pseudostratified: 1 layer (looks mult, but really just 1).

Cuboidal: Cube shape.

Columnar: Long and narrow.

Squamous: Flat

What counts as connective tissue

Bone, cartilage, tendon, blood

Shapes of bacteria

Bacilli: rod

Cocci: sphere

Spirilla: spiral

Obligate Aerobe:

Obligate Anaerobe:

Facultative Anaerobe:

Aerotolerant Anaerobe:

Obligate Aerobe: needs O2.

Obligate Anaerobe: Dies in O2.

Facultative Anaerobe: Toggle between

Aerotolerant Anaerobe: Does not use O2 but tolerates it.

Gram positive

PURPLE, super fat peptidoglycan wall (no outer membrane)

Gram negative

PINK-RED, skinty peptidoglycan wall and has an outer membrane

Transformation:

Conjugation:

Transduction:

Transposons:

Transformation: info comes from environment

Conjugation: sex pili/conjugation bridge.

F+ → F-

or Hfr → recipient

Transduction: bacteriophage moves genetic info

Transposons: can insert/remove themselves.

where on the pentose sugar are bases and phosphate group bound to?

Phosphate group binds to 5’

• 4’ is H

• 3’ is a hydroxyl group

• 2’ is an H on deoxyribose but OH in ribose

Nitrogenous base binds to 1’

Difference in eukaryote and prokaryote (ETC, ribosome size, reproduction, DNA look)

Capsid:

Envelope:

Virion:

Capsid: Protein Coat.

Envelope: Some have lipid envelope.

Virion: virus particles.

Bacteriophage

virus for bacteria

single strand positive and negative sense

Positive Sense: Can be translated by cell.

Negative Sense: RNA replicase must make a complimentary strand, which can then be translated.

retrovirus

single strand RNA which needs reverse transcriptase to make DNA

lytic vs lysogenic

lytic is evil and will explode the cell

lysogenic will insert itself into genome and activate upon stress

viral genome can be

DNA or RNA

Double or single

Prions

evil proteins caused by misfolding

Viroid

plant virus

Cell cycle steps

G₁: Make mRNA and proteins

G₀: will enter if it DOES NOT need to divide

G₁ Checkpoint: Cell decides if it should divide. P53 in charge

S: DNA replicated

G₂: Cell growth. Make organelles

G₂ Checkpoint: Check cell size & organelles

M: Mitosis and cytokinesis

Mitosis steps

PMAT

Prophase → envelope dissolves and chromatin condenses into chromosomes

Metaphase → Align in middle

Anaphase → Sister chromatids are pulled apart

Telophase → nuclear envelope reforms

Cytokinesis → cleavage of the two newly made cells

Positive growth signals (3)

1. CDK + cyclin make complex

2. Rb phosphorylated to Rb + P

3. Rb changes shape releases E2F

4. Cell division continues

Negative growth signals

1. CDK inhibitor block phosphorylation of Rb

2. E2F is still attached

3. cell cycle stops

Meiosis

Prophase I: Chromosomes condense, nuclear membrane dissolves + crossing over occurs.

Metaphase I: Spindles connect at centromeres and align them along the middle

Anaphase I: Homologous pairs move to opposite sides. This is

disjunction.

Telophase I: Chromosomes decondense cell

divides (cytokinesis), forms two haploid daughter cells of unequal sizes.

---

Prophase II: Chromosomes condense + centrosomes

move to opposite poles

Metaphase II: Spindle fibers from opposing centrosomes attach to chromosomes and align them in middle.

Anaphase II: Spindle fibers separate the sister chromatids, chromosomes move to opposite poles.

Telophase II: Chromosomes decondense, nuclear membrane reforms, cells divide

(cytokinesis) to form four haploid daughter cells.

Nondisjunction

chromatids dont separate properly during anaphase

What stage does crossing over occur?

Prophase I

What stage does law of segregation apply?

Anaphase I

What is law of segregation

Alleles will separate during meiosis so that the child will only have one from each parent (Dominant or recessive)

X linked disorder

SEEN IN MALES

women carry

Y chromosome

SRY gene activates man stuff

Semen is made of

sperm + seminal fluid

What cleans out urethra in males

bulbourethral gland

what do seminal vesicles and prostate do

make alkaline fluid so sperm can survive the acidic vagina

seven up sperm pathway

Seminiferous tubules: sperm made here, kids eat free at sertolli cells

Epidiymis: stores sperm

Vas deferens: control movement of bawls (testes)

Ejaculatory duct:

Urethra:

Penis:

Menstrual cycle

Split into follicular and luteal phase

Describe the start and end of follicular phase

Start

• FSH high as egg develops

• LH low

• preovulation/menstruation ovarian phase

• Estrogen gradually increases

• Progestogen low

• 0-7 menses uterine phase

End

• FSH decreases as egg is released

• LH at all time high to induce ovulation

• ovulation ovarian phase occurs

• Estrogen at all time high

• Progestogen low

• 7-14 proliferative uterine phase

Describe the start and end of luteal phase

Start

• FSH low

• LH low

• postovulatory ovarian phase

• Estrogen gradually decreases

• Progestogen at all time high

• 14-28 secretory uterine phase

End

• FSH slowly increases to prepare next cycle

• LH low

• postovulatory phase

• Estrogen gradually decreases

• Progestogen slowly decreasing

• 14-28 secretory uterine phase

Where are eggs made?

ovaries but really follicles within them

What thickens uterine wall and reproductive tract

estrogen answers to FSH

What protects the endometrium

Progesterone answers LH

What does Follicle Stimulating Hormone do in males vs females?

men: starts spermatogenesis tells sertolli cells to feed them

women: development of ovary follicles start

What does Luteinizing Hormone do in males vs females?

men: interstitial cells have cells make testosterone

females: ovulation

Stages of embryo

Fertilization

Morula

Blastula

Gastrulation

Neurulation

(Five monkey babies get newshoes)

What stage of embryo development is when there is a ball/mass of cells?

Morula

Ectoderm becomes

Nervous system and attract stuff like skin, nails, hair, mouth, booty hole

Mesoderm becomes

Muscoskeleton so circulatory system, gonads, adrenal cortex

Endoderm becomes

Endocrine glands, GI tract, respiratory tract, bronchi, bladder, stomach

Names for twins

Fraternal= dizygotic

Identical = monozygotic

Cell specialization

Determination = ok this is the cell I’m gonna become

Differentiation= ok I am becoming the cell I chose

What is induction

Cells influence the fate of other cells

Autocrine signaling

Cell signals itself

Paracrine

Cell talks to nearby cells through diffusable messengers

Juxtacrine

Cells talks cell to cell

Endocrine

Cells talk through bloodstream

Does umbilical artery or vein give the baby oxygen?

Umbilical vein

Pathway fetal shunts skip the lungs

Foramen ovule: open R to L atrium

Ductus arteriousus: pulmonary artery to aorta

Pathway fetal shunts skip the liver

Umbilical vein to inferior vena cava

Temporal summation

Tap salt shaker twice

Multiple action potentials from one source

Spatial summation

Tap salt and pepper shaker

Action potentials from different sources

Sodium potassium ATP pump

3 Na+ OUT

2 K+ IN

1 ATP used

Describe action potential graph

-70 mV resting

When a stimulus goes above threshold of -55 mV it triggers cascade

Depolarization is Na+ channels opening bringing sodium in to make membrane positive

+40 is action potential

Repolarization is K+ channels open removing potassium to make membrane negative

what is the blood brain barrier made of?

astrocytes

what makes up the barrier between cerebrospinal fluid and the fluid of the CNS

ependymal cells

what does microglia do

digest waste in CNS

schwann cells make what and where?

myelin in PNS

oligodendrocytes make what and where?

myelin in CNS

white matter consists of

myelinated sheaths

gray matter consists of

cell bodies and dendrites

brain

inside white

outside gray

spinal cord matter (in & out)

inside gray

outside white

monosynaptic reflex arc

sensory neuron → motor neuron

polysynaptic reflex arc

sensory → interneuron → motor

synapse pathway

1. action potential arrives at the terminal

2. voltage gated Ca2+ channels open (lets calcium in)

3. Ca2+ allows synaptic vesicle (holding neurotransmitters) to fuse with the membrane

4. neurotransmitters diffuse out

how are neurotransmitters removed from the synaptic cleft

• broken down by enzymes

• reuptake by the cleft

• diffusion out of cleft

PNS splits into

somatic - chose to → sAnsory and motEr (afferent & efferent)

autonomic- auto → sympathetic & parasympathetic

autonomic nervous system splits into

sympathetic → fight/flight

parasympathetic → rest/digest

Preganglionic vs postganglionic

Preganglionic: originate from CNS

postganglionic cell bodies in the ganglia extend to target organs

Sympathetic nervous system neurotransmitters

Preganglionic: Acetylcholine

Postganglionic: Epi/Norepi

Parasympathetic nervous system neurotransmitters

Preganglionic: Acetylcholine

Postganglionic: Acetylcholine

Steps of making peptide hormones (4)

1. sliced off large polypeptide

2. Golgi modifies + activates hormones

3. Golgi puts in vesicle to leave out the cell

4. POLAR- must leave thru G-protein coupled receptor

(made from amino acids)

Steps to make steroid hormones

1. Carried to destination by proteins

2. NONPOLAR- can go thru membrane

3. Take direct action on DNA

Guanosine-protein coupled receptor steps

1 - Ligand binds to GPCR

2 - GPCR undergoes conformational change

3 - Alpha subunit exchanges GDP for GTP

4 - Alpha subunit dissociates and regulates target proteins

5 - Target protein relays signal as 2nd messenger and triggers cascade response

6 - GTP is hydrolyzed to GDP, everything returns to its original place, ready to repeat the sequence

Direct vs tropic hormones

Direct: ac directly on tissue/organ ex. Insulin

Tropic: can only affect endocrine tissues

The 1 vs 2 diabetes

1 u don’t make glucose

2 insulin receptors don’t work

Hypothalamus what it does and hormones it makes (6) ACDGGT

Regulates fight, flight, food, fuqq

Gonadotropin-Releasing Hormone: signal for release FSH and LH

Growth Hormone-Releasing Hormone: signal for release Growth Hormone

Thyrotropin-Release Hormone: signal for release thyroid stimulating hormone

Corticotropin-Releasing Hormone: signal for release adrenocorticotropic hormone from antpituitary

Dopamine: signal for catecholamine increased for rewards

ADH/Oxytocin: made in hypothalamus released from behind pituitary

Ant. (front) pituitary what it does and hormones it makes (7) AEFGLPT

Regulates stress, growth, reproduction, lactation

Follicle Stimulating Hormone: starts spermatogenesis in men and ovarian follicle stim in women

Luteinizing Hormone: induces ovulation in women and testosterone in men

Adrenocorticotropic Hormone: release of cortisol

Thyroid stimulating hormone: tells thyroid to make Thyroxine t4, and Triiodothyronine t3 for metabolism

Prolactin: milk production

Endorphins: decrease pain

Growth Hormone (somatotropin): growth and cell reproduction