Human Anatomy and Physiology final exam created

what are the levels of structural organization?

Chemical level- Atoms combine to form molecules

Cellular- organelle, smooth muscle cell

tissue level- smooth muscle tissue

organ level- blood vessel, smooth muscle tissue, connective tissue, epitheal tissue

organ system level- cardiovascular, heart,blood vessels

organ system level- human organism

Dorsal cavitys include

Cranial cavity- contains the brain

vertebral (spinal) cavity: encloses the spinal cord

ventral cavitys include

thoracic cavity: superior to the diaphragam contains the pleural cavities (lungs) pericardial cavity (heart) and mediastinum (esophagus, trachea, heart)

abdominiopelvic cavity: inferior to the diaphragram

abdominal cavity: stomach, liver,spleen,gallbladder,small intnestine, most of large intesntine

Pelvic cavity: urinary, bladder,internal reproductive organs, rectum

Sagittal plane:

Vertical plane dividing the body into left and right

frontal plane:

vertical plane dividing the body into anterior (front) and posterior (back) portions

transverse:

Horizontal plane dividing the body into superior (top) and inferior (bottom) portions goes from right to left

Oblique:

are cuts made diagonally between the horizontal and the vertical planes.

superior

Cranial- above or toward the head

inferior

Caudal- below or toward the feet

anterior

ventral- toward or at the front of the body in front of

posterior

dorsal- toward or at the back of the body behind

medial

toward or at the midline of the body on the inner side of

lateral

away from the midline of the body on the outer side of

intermediate

between a more medial and a more lateral structure

proximal

closer to the orgion of the body part or the point of attatchment of a limb to the body trunk

distal

farther from the orgion of a body part or the point of attatchment of a limb to the body trunk

superficial

external- toward or at the body surface

deep

internal- away from the body surface more internal

Homeostasis

is the maintence of a stable internal enviroment despite external fluctuations

Homeostasis receptor

detects a change in a controlled condition and sends input to the control center

control center (homeostasis)

evaluates input, compares it to a set point and dictates an output command

effector

recieves output from the control center and produces a response that alters a controlled condition

negative feedback

revereses or counteracts the orgional stimulas to return the system ti a set point, (body temp regualtion,blood glucose control,blood pressure regulation)

postiive feedback

enhances or amplifies the orgional stimulas, driving the variable further away from the baseline until and definitive event halts the process (childbirth,blood clotting, action potential depolarizaltion)

Major elements (96% body mass)

Oxygen (O) Carbon (C) Hydrogen (H) Nitrogen (N)

Lesser elements (-3.8%)

Calcium (Ca) Phosphorus (P) Potassium (K) Sulfar (S) Sodium (Na) Chlorine (Cl) Magnesium (Mg) Iron (Fe)

This is located in the Neucleus and has a +1 charge and a mass of 1 amu

Proton

This is located in the necleus has a charge of 0 and a mass of 1amu

Neutron

This is located in the electron cloud has a charge of -1 and has a mass of 0amu

electron

Atomic number

Number of protons, dictates element identity. In a netural atom e-=P+

mass number

Protons+ Neutrons

ion

an atom or molecule with a net electric charge due to the loss or gain of electrons

Cation positively charged (lost E-)

Anion Negativiely charged (gained E-)

isotope

atoms of the same element with the same atomic number (protons) but different mass numbers (different number of neutrons)

ionic bonds

transfer of valence electrons from one atom to another, creating electrostatic attractions between opposing charges

covalent bonds

sharing of one or more pairs of valence electrons

nonpolar covalent

equal sharing of electrons

polar covlaent

unequal sharing due to differences in electonegativity, creating partial charges

hydrogen bonds

weak attractive fore between a partial positive hydrogen and a. electronegative atom of another polar molecule essential for water properties protein folding and DNA base pairing

Inorganic compounds lack (C-H bonds)

water- universal solvent, hight heat capacity lubricant, reactant in hydrolysis

salts- ionic compounds that dissociate into cations and anions in water (electrolytes)

acids- proton donors (H+ donors)

bases- proton acceptors ( OH- donors or H+ acceptors)

Carbohydrates: Primary energy source

organic compounds

Monosaccharides: Single sugars (Glucose, Fructose, Galactose, Deoxyribose, Ribose).

organic compounds

Disaccharides: Two sugars combined via dehydration synthesis (Sucrose, Lactose, Maltose).

organic coumpounds

Polysaccharides: Long chains of monosaccharides (Glycogen in animals, Starch/Cellulose in plants).

organic coumpounds

Lipids: Hydrophobic compounds (Fats, Phospholipids, Steroids).

organic compounds

Triglycerides: Saturated Fats:Unsaturated FatsPhospholipidsSteroids:

organic compounds

Proteins: Polymers of amino acids linked by peptide bonds.

organic compounds

Nucleic Acids: Polymers of nucleotides (Sugar $+$ Phosphate $+$ Nitrogenous base).

organic compounds

acidic pH

pH

neutral pH

pH=7.0

basic alkaline pH

pH>7.0

normal blood pH range

7.35-7.45

acidosis

pH

alkalosis

pH>7.45 not enough hydrogen atoms

anabolic (synthesis) reactions

combining simple molecules to form complex ones (A+B=AB)

Catabolic (decomposition) reactions

break down complex molecules into simplier ones (AB->A+B)

dehydration synthesis

joining two molecules together while removing a molecule of H2O (anabolic)

Hydrolysis

Breaking bonds by adding a molecule of H20 (catabolic)

Biological catalysts that lower activation energy without being consumed.

Substrate-specific (fit into an active site via induced fit model).

Sensitive to temperature and pH (denaturation occurs when extreme conditions alter protein shape).

enzyme characteristics

Plasma membrane

selective barrier controlling entry and exit

Nucleus

houses genomic DNA; contains nucleolous (ribosome syntheisis site)

ribosomes

protein synthesis machinery (free or bound to er)

rough endoplasmic reticulum

studded with ribosomes; folds and modifies protiens

smooth enoplasmic reticulum

studded with ribosomes folds and modifies proteins

golgi apparatus.

modifies, sorts, packages, and ships protiens from RER

Mitochondria

site of aerobic ATP production, double- membrane organelle with own DNA

Lysosomes

vesicles containing digestive enzymes for cellular cleanup

peroxisomes

oxidize fatty acids and toxic substances neutralize H2O2

cytoskeleton

provides structural support and motility

centrosome/centrioles

microtubule organizing center crucial for spindle formation during mitosis

route of secreted protien

ribosome-> Transport vesicle-> golgi cis-face-> golgi transface-> sectretory vesicle-> exocytsois.

plasma membrane

is a lipid bilayer composed of phospholipids, cholestrol, and membrane protiens

passive transport ( no atp required down concentration gradient)

simple diffusion, facillitated diffusion, and osmosis

active transport (requires ATP against concentration gradient)

primary active transport, secondary active transport, and vesicular transport

isotonic

equal solute concentration inside and outside

hypertonic

higher solute concentration outside-> water exits cell -> crenation (shrinking)

hypotonic

lower solute concentration outside-> water enters cells-> lysis. (swelling/bursting)

interphase (90%) of cycle no dividing phase)

G1 phase: cell growth, organelle duplication, metabolic activity)

S phase: DNA replication occurs

G2: synthesis of proteins needed for division fincal check before mitosis

phases of mitosis

prophase, metaphase, anaphase,telophase,cytokinesis

prophase

chromatin condenses into visible chromosomes, nuclear envelope breaks down; centrosomes move to poses and form spindle fibers

metaphase

chromosomes align precisely along the metaphase plate

anapahse

sister chromatids are seperated by spindle fibers and pulled toward opposite poles

telophase

chromosomes decondense back to chromatin nucleur envelopes reform around the daughter nuclei mitotic spindle dissolves

Cytokinesis in animal cells

cleavage furrow forms via actin ring contraction, splitting cytoplasm into two indentical daughter cells

Step of protein synthesis

transcription: RNA polymerase binds promoter on DNA, unwinds double helix, builds complementary mRNA in 5->3 direction (A-> U,T->A,C->G,G->C

MRNA processing: introns spliced out, exons join 5 cap and 3 poly a tail added

translation: Initations,elongations, termination

codon

3 base sequence on Mrna specifying a single amino acid

anticodon

3 base sequence on Trna complentary to the Mrna codon

epithelial tissue

covers body surfaces, lines hollow cavities/organs, forms glands. Avascular, highly regenrative, cellularity, attatched to basement membrane.

connective tissue

most abundant characterized by extracellular matrix (ground substance+protien fibers; collagen, elastic reticular) highly vascularized (except cartillage/ tendons)

muscle tissue

specialized for contraction and force generation

nervous tissue

specialized for detection of stimuli and rapid electrical communication

simple

single layer (absorption,secretion, filteration)

stratified:

multiple layers ( protection against abrasion)

pseudostratified

single layer apperaing stratified due to staggered nuclear levels

(connective tissue types) loose connective

areolar (cushion) dipose (fat store/ insulation) reticular (framework of lymphoid organs)

(connective tissue types) dense connective

dense regular (tonds ligaments) dense irregular (dermis, organ capsules) elastic (arterial walls)

(connective tissue types) specialized connective

cartiliage: hyaline,elastic, fibrocartillage

bone: compact and spongy

blond: plasma containing formed elements

Mucous membranes

lines cavities opening directly to the exterior ( digestive, respirtory, repoductive tracts) epithelium+ lamina propria

serous membranes

line sealed internal body cavities simple squamous over loose connective tissue

cutaneous membrane

skin, epidermis+dermis dry membrane

synovial membranes

line joint covities of synovial joints lack true epithelium secrete synovial fluid