BIO161 FinalExamReview

Cranial

Referring to the skull or head.

Superior

Above or higher in position.

Right

Referring to the right side of the body.

Left

Referring to the left side of the body.

Directional Terms

Terms used to explain the position of body parts.

Proximal

Closer to the point of origin or attachment.

Posterior

Towards the back of the body.

Anterior

Towards the front of the body.

Dorsal

Relating to the back.

Ventral

Relating to the belly.

Medial

Towards the midline of the body.

Lateral

Away from the midline of the body.

Distal

Farther from the point of origin or attachment.

Caudal

Towards the tail or posterior part.

Inferior

Below or lower in position.

Organic molecules

Molecules that contain carbon and are found in living organisms.

Valence electrons

Electrons in the outer shell of an atom that are involved in forming bonds.

Covalent bonds

Chemical bonds formed by sharing electrons.

Hydrogen bonds

Weak bonds between a positively charged hydrogen atom and a negatively charged atom.

Polar molecule

A molecule with a partial positive charge on one end and a partial negative charge on the other.

Macromolecules

Large molecules essential for life, includes carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids.

Cell

The basic unit of life.

Monomer

A single subunit of a polymer.

Polymer

A long chain of monomers.

Cellular Structure

The arrangement and organization of cells.

Granules

Small particle or grain.

Nucleotide

Building block of nucleic acids, consisting of a sugar, phosphate, and a nitrogenous base.

Double Helix

The shape of DNA, consisting of two strands coiled around each other.

Amino Acid

Basic building blocks of proteins.

Polypeptide

A chain of amino acids linked by peptide bonds.

Fatty Acid

A carboxylic acid with a long aliphatic chain, forms lipids.

Triglyceride

A lipid composed of three fatty acids and glycerol.

Adipose Cells

Specialized connective tissue cells that store fat.

Organelles

Specialized structures within cells that perform specific functions.

Nucleus

The control center of the cell containing DNA.

Mitochondria

Organelles that produce energy (ATP) through respiration.

Ribosomes

Cell structures that synthesize proteins.

Endoplasmic Reticulum

Cell organelle that processes proteins and lipids.

Golgi apparatus

Organelle that modifies, sorts, and packages proteins.

Lysosomes

Organelles that contain digestive enzymes.

Osmosis

The diffusion of water across a selectively permeable membrane.

Osmotic pressure

The pressure required to prevent the flow of water across a membrane.

Transcription

The process of synthesizing RNA from a DNA template.

Translation

The process of synthesizing a protein from an mRNA template.

Cell Cycle

The life cycle of a cell including interphase and mitosis.

Interphase

The phase of the cell cycle where the cell spends most of its life.

Mitosis

The phase of the cell cycle in which the cell divides.

Tissue Classification

Grouping tissues based on structure and function.

Epithelial Tissue

Tissue that covers body surfaces and lines cavities.

Connective Tissue

Tissue that supports, binds, and protects other tissues.

Muscle Tissue

Tissue responsible for movement.

Nervous Tissue

Tissue that transmits impulses and processes information.

Cell Connections

Structures that hold cells together and facilitate communication.

Desmosomes

Structures that anchor cells together in areas of stress.

Hemidesmosomes

Half of a desmosome, anchoring cells to the basement membrane.

Extracellular Matrix

The non-cellular component of tissue that provides support and anchorage.

Blasts

Cells that create the extracellular matrix.

Cytes

Cells responsible for maintaining the extracellular matrix.

Clasts

Cells that break down the extracellular matrix for remodeling.

Integumentary System

The organ system that protects the body and includes skin and accessories.

Epidermis

The outermost layer of skin.

Keratinization

The process where skin cells fill with keratin and die.

Epidermal Strata

Layers of the epidermis.

Stratum Basale

Deepest layer of the epidermis, responsible for cell division.

Stratum Spinosum

Layer of the epidermis that provides strength and flexibility.

Stratum Granulosum

Layer where cells begin to die and keratinize.

Stratum Lucidum

Clear layer of skin found only in thick skin areas.

Stratum Corneum

Outer layer of dead, keratinized cells.

Bone

A rigid organ that constitutes part of the vertebrate skeleton.

Cartilage

A flexible connective tissue found in many areas in the body.

Ligaments

Connective tissue that connects bone to bone.

Tendon

Connective tissue that connects muscle to bone.

Ossification

The process of bone formation.

Spongy Bone

Bone tissue that has many open spaces; lightweight.

Compact Bone

Denser bone with a solid structure that forms the outer layer.

Bone Shapes

The four categories of bones: long, short, flat, and irregular.

Skeletal Anatomy

The study of the structure of bones and the skeleton.

Skull

The bony structure that houses the brain.

Vertebral Column

The spine, composed of vertebrae.

Thoracic Cage

Structure consisting of ribs and sternum protecting the thoracic organs.

Appendicular Skeleton

The part of the skeleton that includes the limbs.

Axial Skeleton

The part of the skeleton that includes the skull, vertebrae, and rib cage.

Pelvis,

The bony structure at the base of the spine.

Male Pelvis

Narrower and more vertical pelvis compared to the female pelvis.

Female Pelvis

Wider and shorter pelvis compared to the male pelvis.

Skeletal Muscle

Muscle tissue that is under voluntary control.

Smooth Muscle

Involuntary muscle found in the walls of hollow organs.

Cardiac Muscle

Involuntary muscle found in the heart.

Muscle Fiber

Single muscle cell.

Myofibrils

Bundles of protein filaments within muscle fibers.

Myofilaments

Protein filaments (actin and myosin) that cause muscle contraction.

Sarcomeres

The basic functional unit of muscle fibers.

Z disk

Structure within a sarcomere that anchors actin myofilaments.

Sliding Filament Model

Theory explaining muscle contraction by actin filaments sliding over myosin.

Action Potentials

Electrical signals that trigger muscle contraction.

Calcium Ions

Vital ions that play a critical role in muscle contraction.

Myosin Heads

The parts of myosin that bind to actin during contraction.

ATP

Adenosine triphosphate, the primary energy carrier in cells.

Creatine Phosphate

A high-energy molecule that helps regenerate ATP.

Anaerobic Glycolysis

The process of breaking down glucose without oxygen.