quizlet.com/gb/840333125/research-methods-psychology-flash-cards/?funnelUUID=5c0744c4-7514-43bf-a5ea-0c47a358cd06

aim

A general statement of what the researcher intends to investigate; the purpose of the study.

hypothesis

a statement made at the start of an investigation that states the relationship between variables

types of hypothesis

directional: when the difference is clearly identified

non-directional: when the difference is not clearly identified but the researcher knows that there will be a difference

null: there will be no difference

Quantitative data

numerical data

quantitative data strengths and weaknesses

+ simple to analyse so comparisons can be easily made

+ numerical data is more objective and less biased

- more narrow in scope and meaning so it may fail to represent real life

qualitative data

descriptive data

qualitative data strengths and weaknesses

+ much more richness and detail

+ broader in scope so participant can develop their own thoughts and feelings

+ has greater external validity as the researcher has more insight

- difficult to analyse and can't be summarised statistically so its harder to identify patterns and make comparisons

- conclusions rely on subjective interpretation

what is primary data

data you collect yourself

what is secondary data

information that already exists somewhere, having been collected for another purpose

primary data evaluation

+ data fits the job and can target the info that the researcher requires

- requires time and effort from research e.g. experiments require lots of time when secondary data can be accessed in minutes

secondary data evaluation

+ inexpensive and easily accessed with minimal effort

- variation in quality and accuracy of secondary data, may be outdated or incomplete

- also content of data may not match what the researcher needs

extraneous variables

In an experiment, a variable other than the IV that might cause unwanted changes in the DV. Nuisance variables that do not vary systematically with the IV

confounding variables

a variable other than the IV that may have caused changes to the DV so that we cannot be sure of the source of the change. They change systematically wit the IV

how to deal with confounding variables

standardisation, randomisation

demand characteristics

cues in an experiment that suggests to the participant what behavior is expected

solutions for demand characteristics

- single blind trials where participants don't know there is more than one condition

- independent measures, where participants only take part in one condition

investigator effects

Where the action/behaviour/wording of the experimenter unconsciously effects participant behaviour.

solution for investigator effect

double blind: neither investigator nor participant know which condition they are in

Standardisation

Using exactly the same formalised procedures and instructions for all participants in a research study.

It is important so that each participant is tested fairly

Random allocation

Allocating participants to experimental groups or conditions using random techniques

why is random allocation important

Minimizes bias of researcher so that each participant has an equal chance of being allocated to any condition

what is randomisation and why is it important

-the use of chance wherever possible to reduce the researcher's influence on the design of the experiment

(used to control investigator effects)

What is informed consent?

Making participants aware of the aims of the research, procedure, their rights and what their data will be used for. Participants can then make an informed judgement as to whether they want to take part

Ways of dealing with informed consent

give participants a form detailing information that might affect their decision to participate and ask them to sign it if they agree

if the participant is under 16 a signature from a guardian is required

problems of informed consent

there is the possibility that the researcher gives away the aim of the experiment so this could influence the participant's behaviour

What is presumptive consent?

instead of getting consent from the participants themselves, a similar group of people are asked if the study is acceptable, if they agree, the consent of the original participant is 'presumed'

What is prior general consent?

Participants give their permission to take part in a number of different studies- including one that will involve deception. By consenting, participants are effectively consenting to be deceived

what is retrospective consent?

Participants are asked for their consent (during debriefing) having already taken part in the study. They may not have been aware of their participation or they may have been subject to deception.

What is deception?

Deliberately misleading or withholding information from participants

Participants who have been lied to cannot be said to have given informed consent

ways of dealing with deception

debrief at the end of the experiment where they should be made aware of the aims of the experiment

participants should also be told what their data will be used for and they must be given the right to withhold data

if participants have been subject to stress, they should be offered counselling

What is protection from harm?

participants should not be placed at any more risk than they would be in their daily lives, and should be protected from physical and psychological harm

this includes reminding participants that they have the right to withdraw

What is privacy and confidentiality?

Participants have the right to control information about themselves

ways of dealing with confidentiality

maintain anonymity and remind participants that they have a right to withdraw their data

What is debriefing?

the post-experimental explanation of a study, including its purpose and any deceptions, to its participants

What are the four types of experiment?

Lab

Field

Natural

Quasi

What is a lab experiment?

They are experiments conducted in highly controlled environments in which the experimenter manipulates the IV and records the effect on the DV, controlling extraneous variables

Pros and cons of lab experiments

+ high control over extraneous variables so the researcher can ensure that effects on the DV are likely due to the IV (high internal validity)

+ replicable so it can be checked for validity

- lack generalisability as it is in an artificial environment (low external validity)

- demand characteristics due to participants knowing they are being tested in a lab

- tasks in labs don't represent real life (low mundane realism)

What is a field experiment?

An experiment that takes place in a natural setting within which the researcher manipulates the IV and records the effect on the DV

pros and cons of field experiments

+ higher mundane realism as participants aren't aware they are being tested (high external validity)

- low control of extraneous variables so its more difficult to establish cause and effect between IV and DV

- ethical issues of consent as participants don't know they are being studied

What is a natural experiment?

An experiment where the change in the IV is not brought about by the researcher but would have happened even if the researcher had not been there. The researcher records the effect on the DV.

pros and cons of natural experiments

+ provides opportunities for the researcher

+ high external validity as they study real life

- naturally occurring events may happen rarely limiting research opportunities

- no random allocation so researcher may be unsure of weather the IV affected the DV

What is a quasi-experiment?

The IV is not determined by the researcher, it is naturally occurring

Pros and cons of quasi-experiment

+ often carried out in controlled conditions so it has similar pros to lab experiments

- no random allocation so there may be confounding variables

What is operationalisation?

Clearly defining variables in terms of how they can be measured

what are independent groups/measures?

Two separate groups of participants experience two different conditions of the experiment

independent groups/measures evaluation

- Participants who occupy different groups are not the same so individual differences may affect the DV. Researchers use random allocation to deal with this

-Less economical than repeated measures as you need twice as many participants

+ No order effects so participants are less likely to guess the aim

What are repeated measures?

All participants take part in all conditions of the experiment

repeated measures evaluation

- participants have to do two tasks so the order in whcih they do them may be significant. This is dealt with using counterbalancing

- order effects due to boredom of repeating tasks

- confounding variables may arise as participant could guess what the aim is so they perform better on the second task

+ participant variables are controlled

What are matched pairs?

People with similar qualities are sorted into pairs, and then the pair is separated, with each taking part in a separate part of the study

Matched pairs evaluation

+ participants only take part in a single condition so order effects and demand characteristics less of a problem

- although participant variables reduced, pps can never be matched exactly. even when identical twins are used as matched pairs, there will still be important differences that may effect DV.

- matching may be time-consuming and expensive especially if a pre-test is required, less economical than other designs

what is the difference between a population and a sample?

population is a group of individuals that the researcher is interested in but for practical and economic reasons it isn't possible to include all members of that group so researchers select a small group that represents that population - this is the sample

What is random sampling?

everyone in the population has an equal chance of being selected. participants are chosen by using a complete list of members in the target population using a lottery method

random sampling evaluation

+ No researcher bias

- Time consuming

- May end up with biased sample

What is systematic sampling?

The required elements are chosen at regular intervals from an ordered list

A sampling frame is produced and a sampling system is nominated

Systematic sampling evaluation

+no researcher bias,

+usually fairly representative,

+ may still end up with biased sample

What is stratified sampling?

where the composition of the sample reflects the proportion of people in certain sub groups within the target population

stratified sample evaluation

+ no researcher bias

+ representative sample

- strata cannot reflect all the ways in which people are different

What is opportunity sampling?

Taking a sample of people who are available at the time that the study is being carried out and fit the criteria of the research.

opportunity sampling evaluation

+ quick and cheap

- unrepresentative of target population as it is drawn from specific areas

- researcher bias

What is volunteer sampling?

Individuals volunteer to be included

Volunteer sampling evaluation

+ Less time consuming

- Attracts a certain profile of person (helpful people)

What are pilot studies and why do researchers carry them out?

small-scale version of a study used to establish procedures, materials, and parameters to be used in the full study

they allow researchers to make any adjustments to the design of the research before carrying out full investigations. It saves money, time and effort in the long run

data from the pilot study is not included in the results of the real study

What is naturalistic observation?

observing and recording behavior in naturally occurring situations without trying to manipulate and control the situation

what is a controlled observation

Watching and recording behaviour within a structured environment

What is a covert observation?

Participants' behaviour is watched and recorded without their knowledge or consent.

What is an overt observation?

Participants' behaviour is watched and recorded with their knowledge and consent.

what is a structured observation

when the researcher uses a pre-determined list of behaviours to quantify observations (behavioural categories)

What are unstructured observations?

When the researcher writes down everything they see. Produces accounts of behaviour that is rich in detail. Appropriate when observations are small in scale and involve few ppts.

what are participant observations?

The researcher becomes a member of the group whose behaviour he/she is watching and recording.

What are non-participant observations?

The researcher remains outside of the group whose behaviour he/she is watching and recording.

evaluation of naturalistic and controlled observations

- Naturalistic is high in ecological validity

- There is little control of what is happening

- Controlled can focus on particular aspects of behaviour

- Environment might feel unnatural

evaluation of overt and covert observation

- if participants dont know they are being watched behaviour will be natural so increases validity

-however there are etical issues with observing people without cosent

participant and non participant observation evaluation

Participant=

+gives more insight into the sample being studied so more valid.

- may identify too much with sample and lose objectivity.

Non-participant=

+researchers maintain objective distance away so less chance of results being biased.

- may lose valuable insight into details of sample so less valid

structured and unstructured observations evaluation

Structured:

+ researcher can compare findings across groups, makes findings consistent (can improve inter-rater reliability)

- low internal validity: researcher may miss some crucial behaviours, therefore it may not provide the full picture

Unstructured:

+ rich data, adds to internal validity

- prone to observer bias due to lack of objective behaviour categories, can reduce inter observer reliability

Behavioural categories

When a target behaviour is broken up into components that are observable and measurable

Event sampling

A target behaviour or event is first established then the researcher records this event every time it occurs

time sampling

a measurement of the presence or absence of behavior within specific time intervals

questionaires

A self report data collection instrument that is filled out by research participants

open questions

questions that allow for a variety of extended responses

generate qualitative data

Evaluation of open questions

+ less chance of researcher bias, participants don't feel the pressure of the researcher and aren't influenced by their expectations

+ provide richer data

- participant may answer in socially desirable ways where they try portray themselves in a positive light to the researcher - may reduce validity as its not their natural response

closed questions

Questions that can usually be answered with yes or no.

can be in the form of a likert (agree...disagree) scale or a ranking scale (1-10)

Evaluation of closed questions

+ Quantitative data is easier to analyse

- Lacking detailed or in depth answers, which may not reflect the Ps true meaning.

questionnaire design

-clear and concise

-no ambiguous language

-avoid leading questions

-avoid two questions in one

- avoid sensitive questions

- pilot and modify the questionnaire

- keep it short

structured interviews

an interviewing approach that involves developing a list of questions beforehand and asking the same questions in the same order to each candidate

structured interview evaluation

+ standardised

+ easier to analyse as it can produce quantitative data

- less detail

- investigator effects- interviewer may unconsciously bias a response eg. through tone of voice, body language

unstructured interview

no fixed set of questions and no systematic scoring procedure

involves asking probing questions to find out what the ppts are like

like a conversation

answers are usually recorded

Evaluation of unstructured interviews

STRENGTHS

- More flexibility, interviwer can follow up and gain insight

LIMITATIONS

- Analysis not straightforward, irrelevant information

- Social desirability bias, rapport needs to be established

- time consuming, costly

what are the three measures of central tendency?

mean - average

median - one in the middle

mode - most frequent

strengths and limitations of mean

+ most representative/sensitive measure of central tendency as it takes into account the entire set of data

- because its so sensitive, outliers can distort the mean. Can only be used with ordinal and interval data

strengths and limitations of median

+ not distorted by extreme scores

- doesn't reflect all the scores in the set of data so isn't a very sensitive measure of central tendency

strengths and limitations of mode

+Very easy to calculate

+Unaffected by extreme values

-Not very useful if there are several modes

what are the two measures of dispersion

range- difference between highest and lowest number

standard deviation-amount that scores differ from the mean

strengths and limitations of range

+ easy to calculate without calculator

- does not indicate the distribution pattern across the whole data set

strengths and limitations of standard deviation

+ precise messurement of dispoersison because all the values in the data set are included in the calculation

- extreme values can distort measurement

what are strengths of correlations

- are able to be carried out in circumstances where it would be unethical/ impractical to manipulate variables. This is because there is no direct manipulation of vairiables

- can be used as a preliminary investigation. This is because if a relationship is found it provides justification for an experiment to take place.

Limitations of correlations

- Correlation does not equal causation

- Correlations can sometimes be explained by third (extraneous) variables

when do you use histograms

When data is continuous. Bars touch

when do you use a line graph

used to compare changes over the same period of time for more than one group

when do you use bar charts

Used to show data that is in categories (discrete data) . The columns shouldn't touch and should have equal width.

when do you use scattergrams

- seeing differences between co variables