adiabatic cooling
the process by which the temperature of an air mass decreases as the air mass rises & expands
a-horizon
topsoil where bacteria, fungi, and small animals thrive burrowing animals help to circulate air and water and mix materials
aqueducts
a pipe/passage for transporting water can displace wastewater, but can be expensive and damage habitats
asthenosphere
outer mantle - semi-molten, ductile, flexible rock
basalt
dark-colored, fine-grained, igneous rock
bedrock
parent material from which soil horizons form
b-horizon
subsoil which contains minerals brought by groundwater or leeched from the a-horizon. high in iron, calcium, and aluminum; made of clay
biological soil properties
fungi, bacteria, & protozoan account for 80-90% of soil's productivity and can break down organic material
cation
positively charged ion
cation exchange
the ability of a particular soil to absorb and release cations
chemical soil properties
acidity which can be neutralized by ways of base material (i.e., calcium, magnesium, sodium, potassium)
chemical weathering
the chemical process by which rock is broken down
c-horizon
partially weathered bedrock - some is from the parent material and others from forms of past erosion
cinder cone volcano
steep, cone-shaped hill/small mountain made from ash, cinders, and bombs piled up around the opening of a volcano
cold air vs. hot air
cold: falls due to its higher density hot: rises due to its lower density
composite volcano
tall, cone-shaped mountain in which layers of lava alternate with layers of ash and other volcanic material
confined vs. unconfined aquifers
confined: surrounded by impermeable rock (clay) which impedes water flow unconfined: made of porous rock covered by soil
continental-continental convergent boundary
two continental plates collide, leading to mountain ranges being created as the colliding crust is compressed and thus pushed upward
continental-oceanic convergent boundary
subduction occurs where the plates collide and the oceanic plate bends and slides into the mantle
convergent plate boundary
tectonic plate boundary where 2 plates collide/crash into each other
coriolis effect
the effect of earth's rotation on the direction of winds and currents
crustal abundance
the average concentration of an element in earth's crust
dams - pros and cons
p: control the flow of water c: possible overuse of hydroelectric power
deep-ocean trench
indent in the ocean's surface floor - the deepest part of the ocean
desalination
obtaining freshwater by removing salt from saltwater
detritivores
organisms that eat dead/decaying organic matter
dikes
barrier used to prevent ocean water from flooding
divergent plate boundary
boundary between 2 oceanic plates that are moving away from each other to form new ocean crust
drip irrigation
irrigates through a slowly-dripping hose
earthquake
sudden movement/vibration of earth's crust caused by a release of potential energy along a fault
earth's layers
1 - crust 2 - mantle 3 - outer core 4 - inner core
epicenter
the point on earth's surface directly above the focus of an earthquake
exosphere
uppermost region of earth's atmosphere
flood irrigation
form of irrigation in which the entire field of crops is flodded
focus
location inside earth's crust where an earthquake originates
furrow irrigation
form of irrigation in which trenches are digged between rows of crops
impermeable surfaces
pavement/buildings that don't allow water penetration
levee
wall which blocks overflowing in rivers
lithosphere
contains the crust & mantle
mantle
contains magma (molten rock)
mesosphere
third layer of the atmosphere with little amounts of oxygen
metal
an element with properties that allow it to conduct electricity and heat energy and to perform other important functions
microorganisms
microscopic organisms which may exist in a single-celled form or in a colony of cells
mining legislation
1 - mining law of 1982: promoted the recovery of minerals and fuels from federal land 2 - surface mining control and reclamation act of 1977: promoted minimal disturbance of land during mining
mountaintop removal
type of surface mining in which a mountaintop/ridgeline is destroyed through the use of explosives
oceanic crust
thinner, more dense, younger crust made of basalt from shield volcanoes at the zone of divergence
o-horizon
made mostly of leaves, litter, and humus
open-pit mining
type of surface mining in which minerals are extracted from an open pit in the ground
ore
a concentrated accumulation of minerals from which economically valuable materials can be extracted
parent material
the rock material from which the inorganic components of soil are derived
permeability
the allowing of water and roots to move between particles in soil
pH level
measure of how acidic/basic water is - the potential of hydrogen
physical weathering
the breaking down of rocks through physical processes (e.g., freezing, thawing)
placer mining
a type of surface mining in which water is used to separate ore from surrounding sediment
prevailing winds
winds that blow in specific directions over specific areas of the earth
reserve
the known quantity of a resource that can be economically recovered
richter scale
a logarithmic scale ranging from 1-10 used to express the energy released by an earthquake
ring of fire
a major belt of volcanic activity that rims the pacific ocean caused by oceanic-continental plates at convergent boundaries overlapping
saltwater intrusion
rapid pumping that draws down the water table and leads to lessening pressure and saltwater infiltration
seafloor spreading
the formation of new oceanic crust as a result of magma pushing upward and outward from earth's mantle to the surface
shield volcano
a wide, gently sloping mountain made of layers of lava and formed by quiet eruptions in rift valleys and erupt basalt
soil
a mixture of mineral particles and organic material that covers the land, and in which terrestrial plants grow
soil triangle
a graphic explanation of the proportions of sand, silt, and clay in soil sizes from biggest to smallest: 1 - sand 2 - silt 3 - clay
spray irrigation
form of irrigation in which a field of crops is sprayed
stratosphere
second layer of earth's atmosphere, also known as the ozone layer
subsurface mining
mining below the surface
surface mining
mining above or on the surface
symbiosis
interactions between different species
types:
mutualism: both benefit (+, +)
commensalism: 1 benefits, the other is unaffected (+, o)
parasitism: 1 benefits, the other is harmed (+, -)
tailings
waste material from mining ore. also known as mining spoils
texture
the amount of rock, sand, silt, and clay in a soil sample
theory of hotspots
some areas with hotspots are randomly more active than others
theory of plate tectonics
earth's lithosphere is broken up into huge, moving slabs of rock driven by motions in the mantle, causing geological events
thermosphere
fourth layer of the earth's atmosphere where the sun's radiation is absorbed and puts on the auroras
transform plate boundary
boundary between 2 plates that are sliding past one another
troposphere
first layer of the earth's atmosphere where weather, climate, and life form, as well as biogeochemical cycles
water table
the uppermost at which groundwater fully saturates rock/soil
weathering
the breakdown of rocks into smaller pieces
can be physical (wind, rain, freezing/thawing of ice), biological (roots of trees cracking rocks), or chemical (acid rain, acids from moss/lichen)