the british empire - imperial consolidation & liberal rule - 1890-1914 - issues in Britain

What did most people believe about the British Empire making Britain rich in 1890 and why could this be called a fallacy?

Most believed that the Empire was making Britain wealthy so more empire = more wealth.

This could be called a fallacy because the benefits of empire were less than often imagined as while the level of trade with the empire stayed high, trade with non-colonies e.g. USA grew in this period.

How did free trade affect Britain’s trade relationship with its colonies?

Colonies gained no economic benefit to trade with the empire vs outside - Britain still had a disproportionate amount of trade in its colonies.

Why was India important for Britain, and what trade details are significant?

India took 20% of British exports which was returned with large quantities of raw resources - tea.

These materials were used in Britain but also exported by Britain.

What kinds of products did Britain receive from colonies such as Canada, South Africa, Australia, and New Zealand?

Wool & sugar from S.A. & Australia.

Dairy produce & lamb from N.Zealand.

Beef & wheat from Canada - they supplied upwards of 10% of Britain’s beef.

How did Britain’s wheat imports from non-imperial nations, like the USA, compare to those from its own colonies?

Britain’s wheat imports show that Britain’s trade was growing with the non-imperial world -

1894 - Britain imports 64 million hundredweight of wheat - 30.7 from USA, 17.2 million from Russia but only 3.6 million from Canada.

What was the the difference between Britain’s total trade with its own colonies and its trade with other countries?

Empire’s total trade = 745 million in 1896 but the trade between countries within the empire was only 183 million.

Trade with Britain & non-imperial countries was increasing but trade with the empire remained static.

What criticism did anti-imperialists make about how the Empire affected the cost of living or taxes for the middle class?

Anti-imperialists argued that the Empire cost middle class people more than it benefited them due the cost of imperial defence in their taxes - 2nd Boer War.

They also believed high cost of living was due to empire as they blamed empire for holding back developments that would have helped increase living standards for workers.

They also believed imperial food import undermined domestic food production & served to depopulate the countryside.

How did some people argue that the Empire slowed Britain’s progress in modernising its industry?

Some critics argued this because Britain was behind in chemical & electrical engineering as a result of poor investment & productivity.

Britain was still relying on imported rubber whereas France, Germany & Russia had successfully stated domestic synthetic rubber production.

How did British investments change between 1900 and 1913, and what worries were there about investing in the colonies?

British investment doubled from 2 billion to 4 billion.

However not all of this was from empire as far more British capital went to the USA & India and the disparity in in imperial vs not investment increased.

Loans in the empire were seen as safe but outside ones more risky but with higher possible rewards.

There was also worry that investing in the colonies might develop rival manufacturers to Britain e.g. building up cotton mills in India so less investment was given to the empire.

How did Britain use things like the gold standard and other financial rules to stay powerful in the world economy?

Britain was still able to remain financially powerful as London remained to world’s financial capital & Britain also set the gold standard for the international monetary system - by 1908 only China, Persia and other smaller countries still used a silver standard.

What was mercantilism?

Economic system during 18th - early 19th century.

Allowed Britain to benefit heavily as colonies were obliged to send most of their produce to Britain, to buy British manufactured goods & use British ships to import & export.

However some people - Adam Smith - argued that the highly regulated protectionist system was limiting Britain from wealth that was indefinitely expandable & freedom from commercial restrictions was the only way to maximise this.

Overall beneficial to Britain but there will still conflicting ideas - Free Trade that argued against it.

What were the advantages of free trade on Britain & the colonies?

Advantages -

• Imperial trade & investment grew enormously creating an industrial empire with a cyclic/symbyotic relationship between the empire & British industry

• 3rd quarter of 1800s saw 20% of British imports came from colonies while the Empire provided a market for 1/3rd of British products

• Colonies continued to trade with Britain even though they didn’t have to

• Benefits for both Britain & colonies due to building of infrastructure but its the British who benefit & profit mainly

What was Chamberlain’s proposed imperial programme?

Chamberlain believed that imperial trade was preferable because it would be more reliable in times of emergency. He also believed that the colonies & commerce with them had the potential for much greater productivity.

So he wanted to boost imperial trade through mutual customs agreements & protective tariffs against non-empire countries.

Why was Chamberlain’s imperial preference programme unsuccessful?

There was resistance from manufacturing =, shipping & banking industries who preferred free trade.

They argued that Britain’s wealth came from free trade & the old economic meaning of empire was long gone - the empire no longer had economic unity & was far from self efficient.

The 1906 election also shows the general public also disliked Chamberlains programme as voters overwhelmingly favoured the Liberal commitment to free trade - not least because it would have put up food prices.

What was the effect or proposed effect of Chamberlains imperial preference on the colonies & why would this have been unsuccessful?

The programme would have put in protective tariffs against non-empire countries which Australia, New Zealand etc all had before 1914.

However likely the lack of success can be seen in the fact that Canada had its own trade agreements with Germany etc & worse still in India the Swadeshi movement was boycotting British goods & textiles.

Overall what were mercantilism, free trade & Chamberlain’s proposed imperial preference?

• Mercantilism - included tariffs etc and was extremely beneficial for Britain but some - Adam Smith - argued that there were better more profitable systems

• Free Trade - no restrictions on any trade - also very profitable & allowed Britain to become more powerful and empire was important in this - the colonies continue to trade with them etc, sometimes led to conflict & cost Britain - imperialism of free trade but they still gained more from it.

• Chamberlain’s proposed imperial programme - mutual customs agreements & protective tariffs against non-empire countries for colonies etc - unsuccessful showing a move away from economic reliance/relationship on the Empire. If it had become a real policy it’s likely it still would be unsuccessful as some colonies were moving away from British trade

What were the Liberals views on Empire?

• looked beyond the Conservative support for 'Good Government' and 'white rule for its own sake'

• aimed at education and improvement of the colonies

• objective of ultimate self-rule

• wanted Freedom 'through empire' rather than Freedom 'from empire'

What were the conservatives views on Empire?

• Empire justified on authoritarian/moral grounds

• a 'burden' God had placed on the British to bring stability to the world

• civilising the colonial peoples, freeing them from local oppression and providing welfare and the rule of law

Who were the high imperialists and their views on empire?

• saw the empire as a racial duty

• Curzon, "there has never been anything so great in the world's history than the British Empire, so great an instrument for the good of humanity"

• Alfred Milner argued that every white man of British birth should feel equally at home in every state of the Empire

• wanted a stronger empire ruled by white people (service in the colonies made people stronger)

• non-white people viewed as 'subjects' - with rights but not capable of controlling their own destiny

Who was Joseph Chamberlain and his views on empire?

• Colonial Secretary - 'high imperialist'

• believed there was a 'national crisis' that only the empire could solve as would enable industrial recovery and provide employment

• empire would generate wealth to fund social reform to strengthen the moral fibre of the British public

• wanted a stronger union between Britain and the colonies of settlement involving a pooling of sovt + an imperial parliament

• introduced the idea of tariff reform and imperial preference

What were the orgs founded that show that there was support for empire?

Victoria League,Round Table Movement,Royal Colonial Institute

What was the Victoria League?

founded in 1901, was a non-political women’s organisation to promote a closer union between different parts of the Empire through 'hospitality, fundraising, friendship and education'

What was the Round Table Movement?

founded in 1909 based on Milner's idea to promote a closer union between Britain and the self-governing colonies

What was the Royal Colonial Institute?

founded in 1870 to provide a meeting place for those interested in colonial and Indian affairs

What was Empire Day?

celebrated first in 1902, officially recognised by Parliament in 1916
a day of festivities to reinforce imperial unity and celebrate the Empire
part of drive to educate the public about empire

Who was John Hobson and his ideas?

• an antisemitic economist who wrote Imperialism in 1902

• viewed that imperial expansion had been driven by a search for new markets and new opportunities for the rich (Jewish) capitalists of Britain to make profits through investment

• believed imperial expansion was a 'capitalist (Jewish) plot'

• Boer War fought to secure the gold resources of SA for rich entrepreneurs and the mining interests

How did wars effect support of empire?

When wars were going well there was support for empire - ideas of working together and family.

When wars were going badly there was also some support of empire to gain aid etc from the colonies as well as critiques of taxes etc.

How does the Boer War show decline in imperial sentiment?

• After 1902, imperialism was viewed by many left-wing politicians as synonymous with capitalist cliques' and 'methods of barbarism'.

• imperialism was associated with the Conservative/Unionist coalition which was heavily defeated by the Liberals in 1906 and 1910 elections

• Chamberlain failed to persuade the public to support his programme

• Non-imperial markets remained far more important than all of Britain's territories combined, providing 75% of all imports and taking two-thirds of exports.

• Most colonial subjects had no love of the Empire - even the most committed self-governing colonies had minority groups who were hostile e.g. French-speaking Canadians

• Liberal govts after accorded low priority to imperial affairs

• by 1914 even the Tories had backed down from grandiose schemes of Empire

• In 1908 the Commons rejected the idea to formally recognise Empire Day

How does the Boer War show a continuation of support for empire?

• no desire to abandon or withdraw from empire

• most popular newspaper e.g. Daily Mail continued to adopt a pro-empire tone

• imperial imagery continued to be used in advertising (would not have been used if empire was unpopular)

• 1909-14 - 1.5m Britons emigrated to Canada, Australia, New Zealand and SA - creating close links reinforced by the new cheap postal service ensuring Britain remained the centre

• -young Britons were in-calculated with imperial pride - school textbooks stressed the achievements of Britons to establish the empire and public schools prepared children to be colonial administrators

• wide range of people supported imperialism

• empire was still a strong inspiration for popular writers

• many Britons and men from the empire volunteered for service in 1914 suggesting patriotic spirits were still high

Who were some key critics of Empire?

• William Digby - set up the Indian political and General Agency in London to raise awareness about Indian grievances in the British Parliament

• Frederic Harrison - A radical left-wing lawyer and historian who believed imperialism to be unethical

What was National Efficiency?

A reform movement - it isn’t a policy - in Britain 1899 -1914.

It was a movement to improve the nation in health, education, military caused partially by a want to be able to compete with European powers and a fear of national decline

The movement was a catalysed by the fact that only 40% of volunteers were considered fit enough to fight in the 2nd Boer War due to poverty & the industrial revolution.

Which areas had problems in that the National Efficiency movement wanted to tackle?

• Economic & industrial challenges

• Military & imperial concerns

• Public health & urban poverty

• Educational deficiencies

Why was economic & industrial challenges a problem that needed to be tackled by National Efficiency?

Britian’s industrial dominance was being seriously challenged by Germany and the United States.

These newer powers had invested heavily in modern manufacturing techniques, scientific research etc. In contrast, many British industries were seen as outdated, relying on family-run firms and underinvesting in technology and technical education.

The lack of innovation and declining productivity contributed to fears that Britain was falling behind in the global economic race and wouldn’t be able to sustain empire & economic prosperity.

How did National Efficiency try to improve problems due to industrial & economic challenges?

Support for technical education, advocacy of tariff reform - Chamberlain & encouragement of scientific management.

Mixed results - industrial efficient awareness grew but Chamberlain’s tariff reform failed politically, technical education expanded slowly & many industries resisted innovation - this was due to the fact it would threaten jobs

Modernisation did happen but during WW1 but this was helped by the changes in this period.

Why was military & imperial concerns a problem that needed to be tackled by National Efficiency?

The Second Boer War (1899–1902) further exposed Britain’s weaknesses. Despite overwhelming superiority in resources, the British army struggled to defeat a relatively small group of Boer fighters in South Africa.

40% of volunteers were rejected for military service due to poor health. This revelation sparked widespread concern about the physical condition of the British working class, especially in urban areas, and led to questions about national preparedness for future conflicts.

Why was public health & urban poverty a problem that needed to be tackled by National Efficiency?

The health of the population became a central concern for reformers. In industrial cities, overcrowding, poor sanitation, and inadequate nutrition led to high rates of disease and infant mortality with limited access to clean water and medical care.

The link between poverty and poor health was becoming increasingly undeniable. The growing awareness of this issue prompted calls for state intervention to improve public health, housing, and living standards.

How did National Efficiency try to improve problems due to public health?

Free School Meals- 1906

1907 - school medical inspections

Support for health initiatives e.g. clean water.

Success in preventative measures for children but not for adults & no large changes like clean water or sanitation.

How did National Efficiency try to improve problems due to urban poverty etc?

Liberal Social reforms - Old Age Pensions Act -1908, Labour Exchange Act (idea of a job centre) - 1909, National Insurance Act (health insurance & unemployment benefits for some workers) 1911

Does have significant change especially in the way people view the role of the government - gov now does things for you but limited in scope so mainly only men etc could access the reforms.

What was another way National efficiency attempted to improve public health & urban poverty?

Eugenics - seen as a solution for this problem.

Reformers felt poor people were having too many kids & these weren’t the people they wanted.

No major eugenics legislation except Mental Deficiency Act - 1913 - people were catergorised and those who were feeble-minded were sent to asylums.

Eugenics discussion continued till the 1930s and even included campaigns for compulsory sterilisations.

Why was educational deficiencies a problem that needed to be tackled by National Efficiency?

Compared to Germany and the United States, Britain’s education system was less effective in producing technically skilled workers. Elementary education had been made compulsory by the late 19th century, but secondary and vocational education lagged behind. Reformers argued that without better training, the British workforce would remain uncompetitive.

How did National Efficiency try to improve problems due to educational defiencies?

1902 - Education Act - restructuring of primary & secondary education - placed it under local authorities & expansion of technical/vocational training

Led to improvements in better/more efficient delivery of education.

However to a larger divide between working class families and middle class etc as working class families can’t afford to have their kids in school & not work so they don’t benefit from education as much.

Overall how successful was National Efficiency?

Somewhat successful -

Successful - public health & urban poverty - pensions preventative measures - free school meals etc but these weren’t as widespread as they could be - only available to kids or to men etc

Unsuccessful - didn’t tackle larger problems like sanitation & clean water, education reforms worsened class divides

Who was Lord Salisbury?

Conservative Prime Minister after Disraeli died in 1881 from 1881 to 1899 (not exactly all of this time but most of it).

What was Salisbury’s approach to government?

Salisbury was mainly interested in foreign policy as he (unusually) chose to combine the role of Prime Minister with Foreign Secretary and he had a more hands off approach to domestic matters.

What were Salisbury’s overall priorities(5)?

• Foreign policy & empire specifically British interests in Africa

• Establishing & consolidating empire

• Dominance over other European countries in the Scramble for Africa & general lead up to WW2

• Unifying the Tories

• (To a lesser extent) labour rights & reform

What were some actions that Salisbury took to improve labour rights/reform(4)?

• Legislation on housing the working class in 1885

• 1888 Local Governments Act - admin of counties was transferred to local county councils

• 1891 Free Education Act - abolished fees for primary education

• 1897 Worker’s Compensation Act - made employers liable for accidents at work

What actions showed that Salisbury didn’t support labour rights & reform?

He resigned in opposition of plans to extend the electoral franchise in 1866 when he was the Sec of India.

What were the aims of Salisbury’s foreign policy(6) ?

• Preservation of British empire & global interests

• Avoidance of entangling alliances

• Balance of power in Europe

• Imperial expansion & consolidation

• Maintaining naval supremacy

• Peace through strength & deterrence

What actions did Salisbury take in his policy of Preservation of British empire & global interests?

Control over Egypt and the Suez Canal:

Although the British occupation of Egypt began under Gladstone, Salisbury ensured continued British control over Egypt to secure the vital Suez Canal route to India.

Despite international pressure, he resisted French attempts to regain influence in Egypt, reinforcing Britain’s imperial and strategic interests.

What actions did Salisbury take in his policy of avoidance of entangling alliances?

Refusal to join the Triple Alliance (Germany, Austria-Hungary, Italy) :

Salisbury declined German invitations to enter formal alliances, fearing they would limit Britain’s freedom of action.

Instead, he focused on bilateral diplomacy, avoiding commitments that could drag Britain into continental wars.

What actions did Salisbury take in his policy of balance of power in Europe?

Mediterranean Agreements (1887)

Salisbury signed secret agreements with Italy and Austria-Hungary to counter Russian ambitions in the Balkans and Eastern Mediterranean.

These pacts helped contain Russia without a formal alliance and maintained a balance of power favourable to Britain.

What actions did Salisbury take in his policy of imperial expansion and consolidation?

The Fashoda Crisis (1898):

A confrontation between British and French forces in Sudan. Britain ultimately forced a French withdrawal, securing British control over the Upper Nile and protecting the route to Egypt and East Africa.

This also reinforced British dominance in North-East Africa.

Prelude to the Second Boer War (1899–1902):

Salisbury’s government backed British expansion and settler interests in southern Africa, particularly against Boer resistance in the Transvaal and Orange Free State.

Though the war itself broke out in 1899, Salisbury’s policy helped pave the way for imperial consolidation in South Africa.

What actions did Salisbury take in his policy of maintaining naval supremacy?

Naval Defence Act (1889)

Although passed just before Salisbury returned to office, his administration supported its principles.

The Act established the Two-Power Standard, aiming to ensure the Royal Navy was as strong as the next two largest navies combined.

Salisbury saw naval dominance as vital to protecting Britain’s empire and global trade.

What actions did Salisbury take in his policy of peace through deterrence?

Response to Russian Expansion in Central Asia (The Great Game)

During Salisbury’s tenure, tensions with Russia in Central Asia (especially over Afghanistan) were high.

In 1885, the Panjdeh incident (Russian attack on Afghan forces) nearly caused war. Salisbury used firm diplomacy backed by military readiness to force a diplomatic settlement, maintaining Britain’s frontier security without war.

What aspects of Salisbury’s foreign policy most similar to Disraeli’s(3)?

• Preservation of British empire & global interests - both wanted preservation of empire especially in Egypt - however Disraeli was more focused on expansion

• Balance of power in Europe - Disraeli is also fearful of Russian expansion but in Afghanistan and he responds militarily to gain territory whereas Salisbury uses diplomacy to maintain balance

• Imperial expansion & consolidation - Disraeli’s main focus is on expansion etc & they also both focus on similar areas e.g. Sudan & S. Africa

What aspects of Salisbury’s foreign policy were most different to Disraeli’s(3)?

• Avoidance of entangling alliances - Disraeli also didn’t form alliances with other Euro countries but this was more due to a lack of any alliances being formed in general - Salisbury is in the lead up to WW1 Disraeli isn’t

• Maintaing naval supremacy - Disraeli didn’t pass any legislation on the army or navy due to similar lack of WW1 lead up

• Peace through strength & deterrence - Disraeli did use diplomacy to secure British interests in the Balkans but over issues in Afghanistan he used war/military

What was the overall view of empire in popular culture in Britain?

In the later 19th century the was a popular enthusiasm for empire celebrating Britain’s “imperial glory” - this was the product of many factors

What were the causes of the popular enthusiasm for empire in British popular culture (6) ?

• Spread of education & greater literacy

• Emergence of mass politics following the widening of the franchise in 1867 & 1884

• Push from the Conservatives due to their boasting etc of the imperialist cause

• Organised entertainment

• Spread of advertising aimed at mass markets

• Magazines & pop press found that imperialism sold

Why was the period 1890 - 1914 seen as a golden age for newspaper publication?

Technical advances in printing & the emergence of the professional journalist with a political agenda allowed printed press to respond to demand and catch the attention of larger audiences.

Who was a key figure in the role of the popular press in popular enthusiasm for empire?

Alfred Harmsworth - pioneered the production of an entirely new form of cheap, populist newspaper in 1896 with the Daily Mail

What was the Daily Mail and why was it so significant?

The paper was deliberately aimed at the lower-middle-class & sold at a low retail price so had a very large audience.

It was significant during the 2nd Boer War as it published imperialist stories of war, damning the Boers and praising the heroic British troops and it was selling over 1 million copies a day - shows imperialist view of British people.

At the turn of the century, the Daily Mail turned to focus against the Germans and portrayed them as a military threat against the military.

How did literature create popular enthusiasm for empire?

Rudyard Kipling had a significant role in shaping the British public attitudes to empire as well as other authors like Samuel Baker & G.A Henty’s military campaign tales.

There was also imperialist ideas in romance - women’s writing at this time - through romances of settlers in different colonies with India being the most popular.

Many of these became Victorian bestsellers

How was Rudyard Kipling significant in shaping popular enthusiasm for empire?

Kipling published very famous stories like the Jungle Book as well as the poem the White Man’s Burden which featured his almost religious belief in empire, British superiority and references to Britain’s “higher goals”.

How did music create popular enthusiasm for empire?

Nationalist & imperialist themes were found in music all across the country in music halls, concert halls & churches - heard by nearly everyone.

Gilbert & Sullivan operas also often conveyed a jingoistic message in a humorous so appealed to many people.

There was also an interchange of musicians within the Dominions and the performance from the musicians from places like Australia became very popular.

Who was Edward Elgar and why was he so influential in the role of music in popular enthusiasm for empire?

He was the best-known and most popular imperial composer who aimed to use his music to create images of the nobility of empire for its listeners.

Elgar wrote music for the Queens Diamond Jubilee and for Edward VIIs accession.

Where were imperialist messages shown to children?

Everywhere - imperialist messages were spread in books, organisations & schools.

Increased literacy had produced a new market of comics & books that featured adventure stories with imperial themes.

These messages were fed to both girls & boys through papers like Boy’s Own Paper & Girls Own Paper which had a membership of around 250,000 to 500,000 in this period.

What was the significance of the Boy Scout & later Girl Guides movements in popular enthusiasm for empire?

The Boy Scout movement was set in 1908 by Howard Handley Spicer followed by Girl Guides in 1912.

It was organised like a military cadet force and was designed to train defenders of empire and became the most successful of attempts to push kid to imperialism and it was popular in the dominions.

What were other youth organisations that also contributed to popular enthusiasm for empire in the youth?

Others had a Christian dimension - Anglican Church Lad’s Brigade established in the 1890s and The Girl’s Friendly Society.

The Girl’s Friendly Society had over 200,000 members with its own colonial emigration society who encouraged girls to consider emigration to improve themselves.

How were imperialist ideas put into school for children in this period?

The History & Geography books used in state schools tended to emphasise the glories of empire & presented the explorers etc as heroes but the native peoples in racist terms.

Children also took part in Empire Day and its pageantry - all this trained children for empire as well as racial & cultural dominance which would go on to shape memories of the Empire later on.

What was the influence of empire on British culture?

British culture was permeated by imperial themes on many levels in images, motifs, exhibitions & advertisements which all helped present a highly romanticised image of empire.

Why did advertisers often use imperial connotations?

In order to sell their good which shows that the British public felt favourably about the empire.

How were the indigenous people from the colonies presented in representations of empire?

They were presented in a way that aligned with ideas of social Darwinism & paternalism.

What were other ways that empire was represented?

• In architecture - building of New Dehli included Mughal & neo-classical elements

• Queen Victoria’s Diamond Jubilee - 1897 - extremely extravagant & included a huge military display involving 50,000 troops - looked back on as the zenith of colonial self-confidence

• King George V’s coronation - similar as it was celebrated with a Festival of Empire in 1911 - with a pageant, exhibitions of imperial products and an intra-Empire Sports championship which became the forerunner of the British Empire Games which became the Commonwealth Games