AP Psychology Midterm Study Guide

🟢 UNIT 0 - Independent Variable

The variable in an experiment that is manipulated to observe its effect on the dependent variable

• NOT dependent on anything

🟢 UNIT 0 - Dependent Variable

The variable in an experiment that is measured and affected by changes in the independent variable

• in order to be measured, it DEPENDS on independent change

🟢UNIT 0 - Random Assignment

A research procedure where participants are assigned to different groups by RANDOM methods

• ensures each participant has an equal chance

🟢 UNIT 0 - Case Study

An in-depth study of a single person, group, or event

• cannot be generalized to a larger population

🟢 UNIT 0 - Correlation

A method showing natural relationship between TWO variables

• NO manipulation

• does not imply causation

🟢 UNIT 0 - Meta-Analysis

A statistical analysis of multiple research studies on the same topic

🟢 UNIT 0 - Naturalistic Observation

Research where behavior is observed in NATURAL setting without subject's knowledge

🟠 UNIT 1.1 - Nature vs. Nurture Debate

Discussion contributing human development to genetics (nature) or environment (nurture)

🟠 UNIT 1.1 - Natural selection

Organisms better adapted to their environment tend to survive and produce more offspring

🟠 UNIT 1.1 - Heredity

Passing of genetic characteristics from parents to offspring

🟠 UNIT 1.1 - Twin Study

Examination of similarities and differences between identical and fraternal twins

• genetic vs environmental influences

🟠 UNIT 1.1 - Adoption Studies

Investigation of similarities of adopted children with biological/adoptive families

• genetic vs environmental influences

🔵 UNIT 1.2 - Central Nervous System (CNS)

Brain and spinal cord

• the COMMAND center of the body

• C stands for serving c*nt/command

🔵 UNIT 1.2 - Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)

All of nerves and cells OUTSIDE brain and spinal cord

• transmit information to the CNS

🔵 UNIT 1.2 - Sympathetic Nervous System

Activated in response to threats AKA fight-or-flight response

• A branch of the autonomic (involuntary) nervous system

🔵 UNIT 1.2 - Parasympathetic Nervous System

Responsible for RELAXATION and restoration after stress

• A branch of the autonomic (involuntary) nervous system

🟣 UNIT 1.3 - Neuron

Specialized cell that transmits electrical and chemical signals in the nervous system

🟣 UNIT 1.3 - Glial Cells

Support/GUIDE cells in the nervous system that assist neurons in their functions

• NOT neuron

🟣 UNIT 1.3 - Reflex Arx

Neural pathway that controls reflex actions, allows immediate responses to stimuli

🟣 UNIT 1.3 - Depolarization

(PHASE 3) The process during which a neuron becomes positively charged, triggering action potential

🟣 UNIT 1.3 - Action Potential

(PHASE 4) A signal that travels along the axon of a neuron when stimulated

🟣 UNIT 1.3 - Reuptake

The process by which neurotransmitters are reabsorbed by the presynaptic neuron after transmitting a signal.

Neurotransmitter

Chemical messengers that transmit signals between neurons at the synapse.

Excitatory Neurotransmitters

Chemicals that increase the likelihood of a neuron firing an action potential.

Inhibitory Neurotransmitters

Chemicals that decrease the likelihood of a neuron firing an action potential.

Neuroplasticity

The brain's ability to reorganize and adapt by forming new neural connections.

Endorphins

Neurotransmitters that act as natural pain relievers and mood enhancers.

Dopamine

A neurotransmitter involved in reward, motivation, and movement.

Serotonin

A neurotransmitter that regulates mood, sleep, appetite, and stress.

Melatonin

A hormone that regulates sleep-wake cycles and circadian rhythms.

Adrenaline

A hormone that is part of the fight-or-flight response, increasing heart rate and energy.

Psychoactive Drugs

Substances that affect the nervous system, altering mood and perception.

Tolerance

The body's adaptation to a drug, necessitating larger doses to achieve the same effect.

Brainstem

The oldest part of the brain responsible for basic functions such as breathing and heart rate.

Cerebellum

The brain structure responsible for coordinating movement, balance, and posture.

Limbic System

A brain region that regulates emotions, memory, and physiological processes.

Frontal Lobes

Brain lobes involved in decision-making, problem-solving, planning, and personality.

Broca’s Area

A region in the left frontal lobe responsible for speech production.

Wernicke’s Area

A region in the left temporal lobe responsible for language comprehension.

Electroencephalogram (EEG)

A non-invasive technique for measuring electrical activity in the brain.

Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging (fMRI)

A brain imaging technique that measures changes in blood flow and oxygen levels during activity.

Consciousness

The awareness of one's thoughts, feelings, sensations, and surroundings.

Circadian Rhythm

The internal biological clock that regulates the sleep-wake cycle over a 24-hour period.

NREM Sleep

Non-rapid eye movement sleep, encompassing stages of light and deep sleep.

REM Sleep

A stage of sleep characterized by rapid eye movements, vivid dreams, and muscle paralysis.

Sleep Apnea

A disorder characterized by breathing interruptions during sleep.

Insomnia

Difficulty falling or staying asleep.

Sensation

The process by which sensory receptors and the nervous system receive stimulus.

Transduction

The conversion of sensory stimuli into neural impulses for the brain to interpret.

Visual Accommodation

The lens adjusts its shape to focus on objects at varying distances.

Trichromatic Theory

A theory that explains color perception based on three types of cones sensitive to red, green, and blue.

Opponent-Process Theory

A theory stating that colors are perceived in opposing pairs.

Pitch

The brain's interpretation of the frequency of sound waves.

Amplitude (in sound)

The height of sound waves that determines loudness.

Wavelength (in sound)

The length of sound waves that determines pitch.

Taste Sensation

Detection of five basic tastes: sweet, sour, salty, bitter, umami.

Olfaction (smell)

The sensory process of detecting odors through olfactory receptors.

Phantom Limb Sensation

The sensation of feeling pain or discomfort in an amputated limb.

Kinesthesis

The sense that provides information about body position and movement.

Weber’s Law

The principle that the just noticeable difference of a stimulus is proportional to the original stimulus.

Schema

Cognitive frameworks that help organize and categorize information.

Metacognition

Awareness and understanding of one's own thought processes.

Heuristics

Mental shortcuts that simplify decision-making but may introduce errors.

Cognitive Bias

Systematic patterns of deviation from norm or rationality in judgment.

Retrieval Cues

Stimuli that help recall information stored in memory.

Amnesia

The loss of memory or specific memories, either temporary or permanent.