(2025) AP Psychology U0 Science Practices

Humanistic Perspective

Stresses individual choice and free will, believing we choose our behaviors influenced by spiritual, physiological, and emotional needs.

Psychodynamic Perspective

Believes that our unconscious mind controls most of our actions and thoughts, requiring analysis through techniques like dream interpretation.

Biopsychology/Neuroscience Perspective

Focuses on how behaviors and reactions are caused by genes, hormones, or neurotransmitters in the brain.

Evolutionary Perspective

Examines human thoughts in terms of natural selection and survival advantages.

Behavioral Perspective

Explains human behavior in terms of conditioning and observable behavior responses to stimuli.

Cognitive Perspective

Explains human behavior based on how we interpret and process environmental events.

Sociocultural Perspective

Examines how thoughts and behaviors vary across different cultures.

Biopsychosocial Perspective

Explores the biological, psychological, and social influences on behaviors and patterns.

Hindsight Bias

The tendency to believe, after learning an outcome, that one would have foreseen it.

Confirmation Bias

The tendency to search for, interpret, favor, and recall information that confirms one's preexisting beliefs.

Overconfidence

A bias where a person's subjective confidence in their judgments is greater than the objective accuracy.

Quantitative Research

Research focusing on statistical and numerical data.

Qualitative Research

Research focusing on textual responses and key themes.

Hypothesis

An educated guess expressing a relationship between two variables.

Dependent Variable

A variable that depends on the outcome of another variable.

Independent Variable

A variable that remains unchanged and impacts the dependent variable.

Falsifiable

The capability of being proven wrong through data collection.

Operational Definition

An explanation of how a researcher intends to measure a variable.

Sample

A group of participants chosen for a research experiment.

Population

The larger group from which a sample is drawn for a research study.

Representative Sample

A sample that accurately reflects the characteristics of a larger population.

Random Sampling

A sampling method where each member has an equal chance of selection.

Convenience Sampling

A sampling method using a group that is easily accessible to researchers.

Generalize

Drawing broad inferences from specific observations.

Stratified Sampling

A sampling process ensuring representation of certain criteria in a sample.

Confounding Variables

Variables that may affect the dependent variable in different experimental conditions.

Random Assignment

Assigning participants to experimental or control groups randomly.

Experimenter Bias

A researcher’s unconscious behavior favoring one group over another.

Double-Blind Study

A study where neither participants nor researchers know group assignments.

Single-Blind Study

A study where only participants are unaware of group assignments.

Social Desirability Bias

The tendency to give responses that make one appear favorable.

Experimental Group

The group in an experiment that receives the treatment.

Control Group

The group that does not receive the treatment for comparison.

Placebo Method

Giving a control group a harmless substance to compare with the experimental treatment.

Placebo Effect

A change in participant’s behavior due to their expectations rather than the treatment itself.

Positive Correlation

A relationship where the presence of one variable predicts the presence of another.

Negative Correlation

A relationship where the presence of one variable predicts the absence of another.

Study

A qualitative research method.

Likert Scale

A survey method that asks participants to agree or disagree with statements.

Directionality Problem

The inability to determine which variable came first in a correlation.

Third Variable

An uncontrolled variable affecting the outcome of a study.

Naturalistic Observation

Observing participants in their natural settings without interference.

Structured Interview

An interview with fixed questions and a set format.

Case Study

A research method that obtains detailed information about one participant or a small group.

Mean

The average score calculated by summing scores and dividing by the number of scores.

Median

The middle score in ordered data.

Mode

The most frequently occurring score in a distribution.

Positively Skewed

A distribution with more low scores, where the mean is greater than the median.

Negatively Skewed

A distribution with more high scores, where the mean is less than the median.

Range

The difference between the highest and lowest scores in a dataset.

Variance

A measure of how far scores spread from the mean.

Standard Deviation

A measure indicating the average distance of scores from the mean.

Correlation Coefficient

A statistical measure of how two variables are related, ranging from -1 to +1.

Scatterplot

A graphical representation of the relationship between two variables.

Statistically Significant

Results unlikely to have occurred by chance, often indicated by a p-value.

Effect Size

The magnitude of a relationship between variables.

Replication

Reproducing research findings to confirm results.

Meta-Analysis

A statistical technique for combining data from multiple studies.

No Coercion

Participation in research must be voluntary without force.

Informed Consent

Participants must be aware of their involvement in a study.

Deception

Misleading participants about certain aspects of the study.

Informed Assent

Obtaining agreement from minors after informing them in understandable terms.

Confidentiality

Protection of participants' personal information.

Risk

The potential for participants to experience harm.

Protection from Harm

Ensuring participants are safe from physical or psychological harm.

Debriefing

Informing participants about the study’s purpose after completion.

Hindsight Bias

The tendency, upon hearing research findings, to think that you knew it all along.

Confirmation Bias

The tendency to pay more attention to information that supports our ideas rather than what contradicts them.

Overconfidence

A well-established bias in which a person's subjective confidence in their judgments is reliably greater than the objective accuracy of those judgments.

Quantitative Research

A research type focusing on statistical and numerical data.

Qualitative Research

A research type focusing on more complex textual responses, looking for key themes.

Hypothesis

A statement expressing a relationship between two variables; otherwise known as an educated guess made by researchers or scientists.

Dependent Variable

A variable that depends on the outcome of another; also known as the variable in the experiment that changes and is tested.

Independent Variable

A variable that remains unchanged during an experiment; otherwise a variable that produces a change/ impacts the dependent variable.

Falsifiable

The capability of being proven wrong through data collection.

Operational Definition

An explanation of how a researcher intends to measure a variable; may raise issues about validity and reliability of the experiment.

Sample

A group of participants chosen for a research experiment.

Population

The larger group from which a sample is drawn for a research study.

Representative Sample

A sample from a larger group that accurately represents the characteristics of a larger population.

Random Sampling

A sampling method where every member of a population has an equal chance of being selected to be in the sample.

Convenience Sampling

A sampling method using a group that is easily accessible to researchers.

Generalize

The act of drawing broad inferences from particular observations.

Stratified Sampling

A sampling process ensuring representation of certain criteria in a sample.

Confounding Variables

Any difference between experimental and control conditions that may affect the dependent variable.

Random Assignment

Assigning participants to experimental or control groups randomly.

Experimenter Bias

A researcher’s unconscious behavior favoring one group over another.

Double-Blind Study

A study where neither participants nor researchers know group assignments.

Single-Blind Study

A study where only participants are unaware of group assignments.

Social Desirability Bias

The tendency to give answers that reflect well upon oneself.

Experimental Group

The group in an experiment that receives the treatment operationalized in the independent variable.

Control Group

The group that does not receive the treatment for comparison.

Placebo Method

Giving a control group an identical but harmless substance to compare with the experimental treatment.

Placebo Effect

A change in participant's behavior due to their expectations rather than the treatment itself.

Positive Correlation

A relationship where the presence of one variable predicts the presence of another.

Negative Correlation

A relationship where the presence of one variable predicts the absence of another.

Study

A qualitative research method.

Likert Scale

A survey method that asks participants to agree or disagree with statements.

Directionality Problem

The inability to determine which variable came first in a correlation.

Third Variable

An uncontrolled variable affecting the outcome of a study.

Naturalistic Observation

Observing participants in their natural settings without interference.