AP PSYCH UNIT 0

Psychology

Scientific study of the mind and behavior.

Confirmation Bias

Favoring information that supports what you already believe.

Hindsight Bias

Believing after something happens that you “knew it all along.”

Overconfidence

Being more confident in your answer than you should be.

Empirical Evidence

Information gathered through observation or experiments.

Scientific Method

A process for asking questions, forming hypotheses, collecting data, and testing ideas.

Hypothesis

A specific, testable prediction.

Falsifiable

Able to be proven wrong through evidence.

Peer Review

Experts evaluate research before it is published.

Replication

Repeating a study to see if the same results occur.

Reliability

How consistently a study or test produces results.

Validity

How accurately something measures what it is supposed to measure.

APA

American Psychological Association; a major professional organization for psychologists.

Quantitative Data

Numerical or measurable data.

Qualitative Data

Descriptive, non-numerical information.

Likert Scale

Rating scale often used in surveys, such as 1–5.

Structured Interview

Interview where everyone is asked the same predetermined questions.

Survey Technique

Collecting information by asking people questions.

Wording Effect

The wording/order of questions influences responses.

Social Desirability Bias

Giving answers that seem socially acceptable rather than completely truthful.

Naturalistic Observation

Observing behavior in a natural setting without interfering.

Case Study

An in-depth study of one person, group, event, or community.

Correlational Research

Examines the relationship between two variables without manipulating them.

Third Variable Problem

Another variable may explain the relationship between two variables.

Scatterplot

Graph showing the relationship between two variables.

Correlation

A relationship between variables; does NOT prove causation.

Correlation Coefficient

Number from −1 to +1 showing the strength and direction of a correlation.

Positive Correlation

Two variables tend to move in the same direction.

Negative Correlation

Two variables tend to move in opposite directions.

Experimental Method

Research where a variable is manipulated to test cause and effect.

Independent Variable

Variable the researcher manipulates.

Dependent Variable

Variable the researcher measures.

Confounding Variable

Outside variable that may affect the results.

Operational Definition

Exact explanation of how a variable is measured or manipulated.

Experimental Group

Group that receives the treatment/independent variable.

Control Group

Comparison group that does not receive the treatment being tested.

Random Assignment

Using chance to place participants into experimental/control groups.

Experimenter Bias

Researcher expectations unintentionally influence the study/results.

Single-Blind Study

Participants don't know which group they're in, but researchers do.

Double-Blind Study

Neither participants nor researchers know who receives the treatment.

Placebo Condition

Participants receive an inactive treatment they believe may be real.

Sample

Smaller group selected from a larger population.

Representative Sample

Sample that accurately reflects the population.

Random Sample

Everyone in the population has an equal chance of being selected.

Sample Bias

Sample does not fairly represent the population.

Generalizability

How well findings can apply to other people or situations.

Statistics

Collecting, analyzing, and interpreting numerical data.

Descriptive Statistics

Summarize and describe collected data.

Inferential Statistics

Use a sample to make conclusions about a larger population.

Measure of Central Tendency

A value representing the center of a dataset.

Mean

Average: add the values and divide by how many there are.

Median

Middle value when numbers are put in order.

Mode

Most frequently occurring value.

Range

Highest value − lowest value.

Normal Curve

Bell-shaped distribution with most scores near the middle.

Regression to the Mean

Extreme results tend to be closer to average when measured again.

Positive Skew

Most scores are low, with a tail stretching toward higher values.

Negative Skew

Most scores are high, with a tail stretching toward lower values.

Standard Deviation

Measures how spread out scores are from the mean.

Percentile Rank

Percentage of scores at or below a particular score.

Bimodal Distribution

Distribution with two peaks/modes.

Statistical Significance

Indicates results are unlikely to have occurred just by chance.

Effect Size

Measures how large an effect or difference is.

Meta-Analysis

Combines results from multiple studies to find an overall pattern.

Institutional Review Board (IRB)

Committee that reviews research to protect human participants.

Informed Consent

Participants agree after being told important information, risks, and benefits.

Informed Assent

A minor agrees to participate when they cannot legally provide full consent.

Confidentiality

Keeping participants' private information protected.

Deception

Intentionally withholding or misleading participants about part of a study.

Confederates

People secretly working with researchers while pretending to be participants.

Debriefing

Explaining the study's true purpose to participants afterward, including any deception.