Research and Methods in Psychopathology

what are the four methods of research in psychopathology?

case study, correlational method, experimental method, and qualitative research

what is a case study?

detailed examination of person’s life and psychological problems

what are the pros of case studies?

• Source of new ideas and initial support for theories of behavior 

• Way to study unusual problems

what are the cons of case studies?

• Findings are biased 

• Can’t generalize findings

what is the correlational method?

how stereotypes develop; used to develop the co-relationship between variables

what are some examples for how we notice when things co-occur in a correlational study?

• We notice that symptom x goes with diagnosis y

• People who do x also tend to do y 

• When people feel x their brain scan looks like y

what is the coefficient of most social science research?

0.3 - also note that the vast majority of psychology research is correlational

when can we trust correlational study?

when the findings are found to be statistically significant

pros of correlational research?

high external validity

cons of correlational research?

low internal validity

what is the experimental method?

procedure where a variable is manipulated and the manipulation's effect on another variable is observed; involves actively manipulating the environment; also helps us get a sense of causality: does x cause y?

independent variable?

• x value

• what is manipulated or changed

• at least two conditions (ex: drug vs placebo group)

dependent variable

• y value

• depends on independent variable

• what is observed (ex: depressive symptoms)

what is the goal standard for experiments?

RCTs (randomized control trials) - using random assignment, the efficacy of a treatment is tested against a control condition. Used to determine which treatments are empirically supported (drugs undergo a lot of these before approval; must determine if drug is actually effective or if patients are experiencing placebo)

what is important to note about experimental control?

the experimental and control groups must be identical except for the independent variable (x).

why is random assignment so important in experiments?

limits confounding variables that may impact dependent variable

what is internal validity?

• high/ideal internal validity means that there are little to no confounds (nearly impossible in real life, especially in therapy studies), or nothing that directly causes a confounding variable

• means there is internal truth to the experiment’s design, meaning you can be confident that the results offer truth

what is external validity?

When findings of an investigation can be generalized beyond the immediate study and applied to other people, places, and circumstances

what are ways of reducing experimental biases, such as expectancy bias?

• deception (unethical)

• placebo - a form of blinding, where participants don’t know which group they’re in

• double blinding: experimenters also don’t know what condition participants are in

what are expectancy effects?

a type of bias in experimental research where participants try to figure out the experiment and act accordingly

pros of experimental method?

• High internal validity 

• Potentially high external validity (truth beyond the study; generalizability)

what is the qualitative method?

• used to study subjective experiences

• involves WORDS, NOT NUMBERS

• Comprehensive description of someone’s experiences 

• Identify themes in responses

• Helps generate testable hypotheses and quantitative research

what are the main theories of mental health?

1. informal

2. formal

3. models/paradigms

what is the informal theory of mental health?

generalized answers to questions relating to mental health (ex: thinking someone is a jerk when they cut you off on the road)

what is the formal theory of mental health?

tells us scientific answers to questions relating to mental health; the theory you have dictates the kind of treatment you give. Basically answers the question: what is the problem? How did this problem develop? How can we make things better?

what are models and paradigms?

used by scientists and clinicians to treat abnormalities and mental illness, etc.; explain events and basic assumptions, guide treatment techniques

what are the primary theoretical paradigms of abnormality?

• Biological 

• Psychodynamic 

• Cognitive-behavioral 

• Humanistic & existential 

• Sociocultural

what is the biological model?

AKA medical model, somatogenic perspective; treats mental illness like a medical condition.

• brain structure

• brain chemistry

• genetics

dopamine?

• Triggered by incentives and rewards 

• Linked to movement, pleasure, and addictions

  • Parkinson’s is a result of lack of dopamine

serotonin?

• Mood regulation, appetite, and sleep

• Inhibits impulses: reduces worrying, anger, and sensitivity to criticism

what is the purpose of biomedical treatments?

Identify the physical source of dysfunction to determine treatment

what are 3 leading biological treatments today?

• Drug therapy 

• Psychosurgery 

• Brain stimulation (magnetic resonance, transmagnetic stimulation); more direct/targeted than drug therapy

what is the psychodynamic paradigm?

Freudian; says behavior is determined by unconscious dynamic psychological forces; psychogenic perspective

what is your id?

primal urges, most unconscious part (horse pulling carriage)

what is your ego?

managing that power (man driving horse and holding reins)

what is your superego?

your standards and conscience; who or what you should be (your parent in the back seat; backseat driver)

what is the preconscious mind?

where action happens in Freudian and psychodynamic theory; stuff that is not actively on your mind, but it could be when prompted

what is the unconscious mind?

• outside of conscious awareness

• often unacceptable or unpleasant (painful childhood memory, fear about the future, attraction, Jimothy the racoon)

• things you push out of your mind and are often unaware of doing so

what is the perceived problem in the old view of Psychodynamic paradigm?

there is some sort of inner conflict

what is the perceived problem in the new views of Psychodynamic paradigm?

1. something happened with development (trauma)

2. interpersonal patterns; idea that you have unconscious patterns you experience growing up, and you project these onto other people; patterns that repeat throughout your life in relationships

what is old treatment in psychodynamic paradigm?

• Old view: making the unconscious, conscious 

  • Talk therapy 

  • Dream interpretation 

  • Free association—encourage someone to just keep talking

  • Parapraxis (Freudian slips)—when you say one thing but you mean another

what is new treatment in psychodynamic paradigm?

• New view: healthy development and interpersonal relations

  • Group therapy 

  • Interpersonal process psychotherapy (more one on one)

  • Social skills training (assertiveness training: a flexible, healthy communication style)

what is the cognitive-behavior paradigm (CBT)?

involves both behavioral and cognitive treatment

what does behavioral treatment involve in CBT?

• Problematic behaviors are learned through:

  • Classical conditioning (Pavlov): associations 

  • Operant conditioning: reinforcers and punishers 

  • Modeling: vicarious learning

what does cognitive treatment involve in CBT?

• Thoughts cause emotions and behaviors

  • The problem: you have some sort of maladaptive thought → maladaptive feeling → maladaptive behavior 

  • When it comes to what we feel and what we do…

  • …it’s not the EVENT, it’s what you BELIEVE about the event

  • How we cognitively evaluate our experiences matters!

  • Different interpretations lead to different feelings

what are some examples of cognitive distortions?

• All or nothing thinking (black and white thinking)

  • What it is: seeing things in only two categories; if you’re not perfect, you’re a failure 

    • Ex: if I don’t ace this test, I’m an idiot 

• Overgeneralization 

  • What it is: making a general rule based on a single event or one piece of evidence 

    • One bad date → men are the worst (but they are…so…)

what is the humanistic theory?

goal is to be a “fully functioning person”

• involves self acceptance: love yourself regardless of circumstances; not disowning parts of who you are

• Trust inner guide rather than social approval

problem with humanistic theory?

• When you think you are valuable only if you “are” a certain way 

• “Bad soil” = those SHOULDs; here’s what you “should” be

  • When you tell yourself things like “I should go to the gym” or “I should put on makeup” 

• keep us from listening to our INNER GUIDE

what makes up the “right soil” in psychotherapy?

• Congruence: genuineness or realness; lack of inner conflict; having therapists/people around you who are comfortable in their own skin 

• Unconditional positive regard: acceptance and caring

• Accurate empathy: deeply grasp client’s subjective world

what is congruence?

when there is little discrepancy between who we actually are and who we wish we were

what is the goal of treatment in humanistic view?

Treatment = therapy

• Mental health = congruence and self acceptance 

• Therapy with a caring, empathetic, and authentic therapist

what is existentialism?

Came post WWII; asks the deeper questions, really honest approach

what are the big ideas in existential approach?

• Existential crisis: when we seriously question life’s meaning or value

  • Feelings of emptiness, confusion, or distress

• Anxiety: is a feature of being human, not a bug in existential therapy  

  • Existential anxiety is normal

• Mental health = authentic existence

  • Treatment = take personal responsibility for your life; embrace and accept life’s difficulties and move forward; what are you in control of?

what is sociocultural paradigm?

focuses on family systems theory

• When one person changes, the system changes and if affects others

• It’s not the person that’s the problem it’s the configuration of the system

• It’s not a fish problem, it’s a lake problem 

• Psychopathology comes from the family system, not from the individual  

• All systems seek homeostasis, even if it’s dysfunctional 

• Goal: treat the system (whole family) not the individual

• Reality: when one person tries to change, others in the system will hinder that change because it affects the system

what does treatment involve in sociocultural paradigm?

• examine interaction patterns and roles

• have people talk to each other and observe

• identify family “rules” and goals

• encourage healthy boundaries (realistic expectations)

• Practice new healthy communication (assertive communication; negotiation)

how to conduct mental status exam?

1. observe (appearance)?

2. ask questions to assess: are they oriented to reality (name, location, who are you)?

3. test attention (tap each time you hear ‘k’)

4. test cognitive function (subtract by 7, starting at 100)