Beliefs - definitions and perspectives

Topic 1

Substantive (exclusivist) definition of religion

A traditional and distinct, sometimes limiting definition of religion as the belief in god/supernatural. (Weber)

Functional (inclusivist) definition of religion

Acknowledge a wide range of beliefs and practices can be included in this definition. Focusing on the functions that it provides and performs for society/individual e.g. integration and psychological. (Durkheim)

Social Constructionist definition of religion

A more interpretivist approach to defining religion - a broader definition looking at the meanings people give to beliefs and interested in how believers define their relationships.

Ideology

A set of ideas/values/beliefs shared by a social group, a way of interpreting the world, presenting a particular view of reality and justifies the interests of a particular group.

Religion and ideology different as ideologies aren’t based around supernatural or spiritual beliefs.

Pluralist, Marxist, Feminist, Political, Religion as an ideology.

Science as an ideology (scientism) - science is only path to true knowledge.

Feminism and religion - religion is patriarchal

Feminists regard religion as a patriarchal institution which maintains the inequality in society where men dominate, and legitimates the oppression of women. Ways they view religion as patriarchal: In religion organisations. Through places of worship. Through sacred texts. In religious laws and customs. Regarding sexuality.

Within religious organisations (feminism and patriarchy)

Religious organisations are mainly male dominated even though women participate religion more than men. For example, Orthodox Judaism and Catholicism forbid women from becoming priests.

Karen Armstrong says the exclusion of women from priesthood is evidence of marginalisation - e.g. in the Catholic church. However, female bishops are now allowed in the House of Lords.

Places of worships (feminism and patriarchy)

Women’s organisations may be restricted - e.g. women aren’t allowed to preach or read sacred texts. In Islam, women menstruating aren’t allowed to touch the Qur’ran. Men and women segregated in places of worship. Laws and customs around marriage and divorce/adultery are pitted against women - influencing legislation.

Holm - describes these restrictions as the devaluation of women in religion.

Sacred texts (feminism and patriarchy)

The stories often reject anti-female stereotypes (e.g. Eve and Delilah) and reinforce perceptions of women’s character. Sacred texts largely feature the doings of male gods. Prophets are usually written and interpreted by men.

Religious Laws and Customs (feminism and patriarchy)

Women tend to have fewer rights than men i.e. divorce, dress codes etc. Religion also has an influence on cultural norms that lead to unequal treatment i.e. genital mutilation or punishment for adultery. Many religion legitimate and regulate women’s traditional domestic and reproductive role i.e. the Catholic Church bans abortion and artificial contraception.

Woodhead - said the exclusion of women from priesthood is evidence of the Catholic Church’s unease about the emancipation of women generally.

Religion is Patriarchal (feminism and patriarchy)

Daly - said Christianity is a ‘patriarchal myth’. It eliminates other ‘Goddess religions’. Christianity is rooted in male ‘sado-rituals’ with its ‘torture cross’ symbols. It embodies women hating.

Simone de Beauvoir - said religion is oppressive to women - used by men to control women. Religion compensates women for their second class status. They get a false belief that they’ll be rewarded in heaven and gain equality there.

El Saadawi - said religion isn’t oppressive itself. It’s the male dominance of religion that’s the problem. This is due to rising monotheistic religions which are male dominated and where scriptures are interpreted/written by men.

Criticism - Religion is not always patriarchal (feminism)

Woodhead - said there are forms of ‘religious feminism’ when women use religion to gain freedom and respect e.g. the hijab/veil: It can be a symbol against oppression. It’s far from the mobile prison (as said by Burchill). It’s a means to escape the confines of the home and enter education employment - this allows women to enter ‘public sphere’ (escape from home/liberation) without losing cultural identity. It eliminates male gaze.

Watson - interviewed three women about what the veil meant to them. Different views but generally positive, liberating, avoid lecherous stares, the male gaze. (Criticism = not representative as only interviewed three women.

Other criticisms of feminism

Gender neutral language has been introduced in many hymns and prayers. Women no longer have to ‘obey’ in wedding services. There have been women rabbis in Judaism since 1972. Women played a significant role in sects i.e. Quakerism. Sikhism has always shown respect to women. Kaur Singh - Gurus pleaded for the liberation of women. Gross - said NAMs are female friendly in their message and organisation.

Evaluations of feminism - strengths

Explains the polluting nature of women and the legitimation of their segregation in places of worship. Explains objectification of women and control of women’s bodies. Functionalists - religion is the worship of society and society is patriarchal, therefore worship patriarchy.

Evaluation of feminism - weakness

Ignores class, male views and the positive psychological functions. Majority of religious participation is women, so it can’t be that bad. Secularisation of western society means religion is no longer a patriarchal tool. Postmodernists say religion has no meaning to individuals anymore.

Liberal Feminism

Differences between men & women are due to: socialisation, sexist laws and roles. We need non-gendered socialisation of children, equality laws.

Church is unequal. Women should be allowed to have same religious jobs as men.

Radical Feminism

Men are responsible for women’s oppression, men directly benefit’s from women’s low social stats. Religion - patriarchal (Daly), men dominate women in society.

Religion have specific rules for women: Catholic women to cover heads in Church, Muslim women to wear Burqa in public.

Marxist Feminism

Capitalism reinforces women’s inferior social status, women provide free domestic labour (cook, clean, rear children). Capitalism benefits from this, husbands can work longer hours.

Religion = tool of women’s oppression under capitalism, Church reinforces traditional gender roles, benefits the ruling class.

Poland abortion: Top court bans almost all terminations

Poland's top court has ruled abortions in cases of foetal defects are unconstitutional (this accounts for 98% of abortions in Poland). Already among the strictest in Europe but the Constitutional Tribunal's ruling will mean an almost total ban. Terminations only allowed for rape or incest, or if the mum’s health is at risk. The Council of Europe's commissioner for human rights said the day marked a "sad day for women's rights" in Poland - launched by MPs from the ruling nationalist Law and Justice party last year. A majority of the court's judges were nominated by the same party.

Bishops and Catholic groups pressured the governing Law and Justice party to impose stricter law. The party supports traditional Catholic values but changing it was problematic. There was opposition in parliament and on the streets. In 2016 an estimated 100,000 people, protested to block an attempt to tighten the law. There were just over 1,000 legal terminations in Poland last year. However, women's rights groups estimate 80,000-120,000 Polish women a year have an abortion abroad. Even women who qualify for a legal procedure often face challenges to having one: such is the stigma surrounding the issue.

Functionalist view on religion

Society has certain basic needs: social order - cooperation and social solidarity.

Durkheim (functionalist)

Published a book called ‘The elementary forms of religious life.’ - stated religious institutions help create and maintain value consensus, order and solidarity of a society.

Wasn’t interested in the belief in gods or spirits, but a fundamental distinction between the sacred and profane. Sacred - things set apart that inspire feelings of awe, fear and wonder. Profane - things of no special significance, ordinary or mundane.

Totemism - simplest form of religion. Studied the Arunta clan in Australia, noted they all worshipped a totem (spiritual symbol e.g. an animal, something they considered sacred). The totem rituals gave each member of the clan a sense of belonging and awe.

Collective Conscience - sacred items in religion represent societies shared norms, values, beliefs and knowledge that make social life and integration possible. Without these, society would disintegrate. He emphasised importance of collective worship.

Cognitive function of religion - provides concepts and categories to understand the world and communicate with others (i.e. to communicate with other we need to use same categories as them). Provides basic categories e.g. time, space and causation.  For example: Ideas of creator at beginning of time. Division of tribes in to clans gives humans first notion of categories. Durkheim thought religion is the origin of humans thought, reason and science.

Malinowski (functionalist)

Uses data from small-scale non-literate societies to develop his thesis, researched the Trobriand Islands off coast of New Guinea. Sees religion as reinforcing social norms and values, promoting social solidarity. But doesn’t see religion as reflecting society as a whole, and doesn’t see religious ritual as the worship of society itself. Sees religion as being particularly concerned with situations of emotional stress that threaten social solidarity.

Religion and life crises: Anxiety and tension disrupt social life - produced by life crises e.g. birth, puberty, marriage and death. Say in all societies life crises are surrounded with religious ritual. Sees death as most disruptive events: most upsetting and disorganising, perhaps main sources of religious beliefs. Religion deals with death, through a funeral, expresses the belief in immortality, denies fact of death, comforting bereaved. Other mourners support bereaved by attending - controls stress/anxiety that might disrupt society. Death is socially destructive, removes a member from society. This expression of social solidarity reintegrates society.

Religion prediction and control: Second category of events, can’t be controlled or predicted also produce tension and anxiety. From his Trobriand Islands research, noted they were surrounded by ritual, sees as a form of religious practice. Fishing’s an important subsistence activity in the Trobriand’s. He observed in calm lagoon, fishing’s done in an easy/reliable manner by poisoning, getting good results without danger and uncertainty’. But, past barrier reef in open sea there’s danger and uncertainty: storm may result in loss of life, catch’s dependent on presence of a shoal of fish, can’t be predicted. In the lagoon, where man can rely on knowledge and skill, there are no rituals, whereas in open sea they perform rituals to ensure a good catch and protect the fishermen.

Rituals reduce anxiety, providing confidence and control. Like funerals, fishing rituals are social events. The group unites to deal with stress, group unity is strengthened.

 

 

Criticisms of Malinowski (functionalist)

Criticised for exaggerating importance of religious rituals in coping with stress.

Tambiah - says magic and elaborate rituals are associated with cultivation of taro and yams on the Trobriand Islands. Related to taro and yams being important because men must use them to make payments to their sisters’ husbands. Men who don’t do this show they can’t fulfil social obligations. These rituals, related to maintenance of prestige in society, not to cement solidarity or deal with uncertainty and danger. A function religion sometimes has, has been mistaken for a feature of religion in general.

Parsons

Provides core values of any culture, norms which regulate behaviour. Gives meanings to life crisis, provides mechanism of adjustment – emotional adjustment and a way to return some sense of normality. Dealing with this helps avoid anomie.

E.g. many norms in Western society are expressions of value of materialism. Religion is part of cultural system, and religious beliefs provide guidelines for human action and standards against which people’s conduct can be evaluated.

Christian society - Ten Commandments operate in this way. Demonstrate how many norms of social system can be integrated by religious beliefs. E.g. the commandment ‘Thou shalt not kill’ integrates such diverse norms as how to drive, settle an argument and deal with suffering of the aged. Norms that direct this behaviour prohibit manslaughter, murder and euthanasia, but are all based on same commandment.

By establishing general principles and moral beliefs, religion helps provide consensus he believes is necessary for social stability.

Sees religion as being addressed to problems that occur in all societies - disrupt social life. Fall into two categories:

1. Individuals are “hit” by events which they can’t foresee. Can’t prepare for, or control - e.g. death, particularly premature death. Sees religion as a mechanism for adjustment to such events and as a way to restore normal pattern of life.

2. Uncertainty. Endeavours where a great deal of effort/skill has been invested, but unknown factors can threaten a successful outcome. E.g. human’s inability to predict effect of weather on agriculture. Religion provides means of adjusting and coming to terms with such situations through rituals which act as ‘a tonic to self-confidence’.

As a part of cultural system, religious beliefs give meaning to life, answer “man’s questions about himself and the world he lives in”. Social life’s full of contradictions that threaten meanings people place on life. Argues one function of religion is to ‘make sense’ of all experiences, no matter how meaningless or contradictory they seem.

Good example: is “Why must men endure deprivation and pain?”. Religion provides answers: suffering is imposed by God to test a person’s faith, punishment for sins, suffering with fortitude will bring rewards in heaven. Suffering thus becomes meaningful.

Evil problem is common to all societies. When people profit through evil actions. Religion solves this by stating evil will receive its just deserts in the afterlife.

Bellah - Civil Religion

Durkheim’s interpretation of religion binding together members of society by encouraging awareness of common membership of an entity greater than themselves – based on small scale, pre-industrial societies. However, still provides a powerful insight into collective rituals of people in modern societies.

‘Civil Religion’ created in sociology by Bellah, drew on ideas of Durkheim and Parsons.

Durkheim’s insights led Bellah to conclude, despite apparent differences, what largely unified Americans – Catholic, Protestant or Jew – was ‘civil’ religion which was distinct from each: a faith in Americanism.  Unlike other religions, which can’t claim allegiance of all Americans, civil religion generates loyalty to nation state. Nations civil religion doesn’t necessarily involve supernatural beliefs, but in America, Bellah argues, it does.

God and Americanism appear to go hand in hand.  American coins tell the world ‘In God We Trust’, Presidents swear an allegiance to God and ‘God Bless America’ ends speeches given by dignitaries across USA.  This isn’t the particular God of a religion but a more general application as ‘America’s God’. Faith in Americanism helps unite American people.

In 19^th century, vast migration to new lands in the West.  Many migrants travelled in wagon trains, pushing back American frontier and opening up new land to white settlement.  These ‘heroic treks’ are pictured in books, paintings and on postage stamps, featured in films and commemorated in statues.  Sometimes the ‘virgin territory’ of the West is pictured as the ‘promised land’ and the settlers as the ‘chosen people’

Every American knows the story of Abraham Lincoln who was born in a log cabin and rose from these humble origins to live in the White House as President of the United States before dying from an assassin’s bullet in 1865.  Pictured on coins and sculptured in marble in the Lincoln Memorial, he has become an almost mythical figure. 

America’s national faith

While some have argued that Christianity is America’s national faith, few have realised that there actually exists alongside the churches and synagogues an elaborate and well-institutionalised civil religion in America: a collection of beliefs, symbols and rituals with respect to sacred things which are an established part of American society.  This religion – there seems no other word for it – while not opposed to and indeed sharing much in common with, Christianity, is not in any specific sense Christian.

Behind this civil religion at every point lie Biblical models: the Exodus, Chosen People, Promised Land and New Jerusalem, Death and Rebirth.  But it is also genuinely American and genuinely new.  It has its own prophets and its own martyrs, its own sacred events and sacred places, its own solemn rituals and symbols. 

Shrines, saints and ceremonies

Many American civil ceremonies have a marked religious quality.  Memorial Day, which remembers Americans killed in war, the Fourth of July, which commemorates the American’s Declaration of Independence from Britain and the anniversary of presidential inaugurations, all celebrate national values and national unity.  There are national shrines such as the Lincoln Memorial in Washington DC, the birthplaces of key presidents, war memorials and other ‘special’ places.  It is not their age or even historical significance that inspires awe and reverence, but their ability to symbolise the nation as a ‘people’.

Likewise there are sacred objects of the civil religion – especially the flag.  The extent to which these ceremonies, shrines and objects are set apart as sacred can be seen in the intensity of outrage at inappropriate behaviour or ‘desecration’.  Some people were arrested during the 1960s for wearing or displaying a copy of the American flag improperly (e.g. on the seat of their pants).