Bio 1001A Outcomes

Variation

Variation

The presence of different traits or characteristics within a population.

Heritability

The ability of traits to be passed on from parent to offspring.

Differential Reproduction

The unequal ability of individuals to survive and reproduce based on their traits.

Change in Genotype of Population

The alteration of the genetic makeup of a population over time due to natural selection.

Adaption by Natural Selection

The process by which traits that are advantageous for survival and reproduction become more common in a population over time.

Fossil Record

The collection of preserved remains and traces of past life, providing evidence of evolutionary change.

Historical Biogeography

The study of the geographical distribution of species and how it relates to their evolutionary history.

Comparative Morphology

The study of similarities and differences in the physical structures of different species, providing evidence of common ancestry.

Scientific Theory

A coherent set of testable hypotheses that attempt to explain facts about the natural world.

Falsifiability

The ability of a scientific theory to be proven false through empirical evidence.

Evolution

A scientific theory supported by extensive evidence that explains the diversity of life on Earth.

Changes in Amount of DNA throughout the Cell Cycle

The variations in the amount of DNA in a cell during different stages of the cell cycle.

Replication Bubble

A structure formed during DNA replication where the DNA strands separate and replication occurs.

Main Features of Each Stage of Mitosis with Respect to Cytoskeleton and Chromatin

The key characteristics of each stage of mitosis in relation to the cytoskeleton and the condensation of chromatin.

Relationship between Replicated DNA and Metaphase Chromosomes

The connection between the replicated DNA and the condensed chromosomes that align during metaphase.

Mechanism of Proofreading

The process by which DNA polymerases remove and replace incorrect nucleotides during DNA replication.

Mechanism of Mismatch Repair

The process by which enzymes recognize and remove mismatched nucleotides in DNA.

General Trends in Cost of DNA Sequencing

The overall decrease in the cost of DNA sequencing over time due to technological advancements.

Relative Distribution of Various Components of Genome Sequence

The proportion of different components (e.g., coding DNA, introns, junk DNA) in the genome.

Proportion of Human Genome Coding for Protein

The percentage of the human genome that codes for proteins.

Difference between DNA Damage and Mutation

The distinction between physical abnormalities in DNA (damage) and changes in the base sequence of DNA (mutation).

Different Types of Genomic Variation among Humans

The various forms of genetic variation, such as single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) and copy number variations (CNVs), found in human populations.

Why African Populations Have More Unique SNPs than Other Populations

The explanation for the higher number of unique single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) in African populations due to their longer history of genetic divergence.

Difference between Insertion Sequences, Transposons, and Retrotransposons

The distinctions between different types of mobile genetic elements based on their mechanisms of movement and the presence of additional genes.

Why Mobile Elements Are Considered to be Biological Mutagens

The reason why mobile genetic elements are considered to be agents that increase the frequency of mutations in the genome.

Role of Tautomeric Shifts in Mutagenesis

The involvement of tautomeric shifts in the formation of incorrect base pairs during DNA replication, leading to mutations.

Mechanism of Substitution Mutagenesis during DNA Replication

The process by which a single base pair is substituted for another during DNA replication, resulting in a point mutation.

Mechanism of In/Del Mutagenesis during Replication

The mechanism by which insertions or deletions of bases occur during DNA replication, leading to mutations.

Mechanism of Chromosomal Rearrangements Resulting from Double Strand Breaks

The process by which double strand breaks in DNA can lead to chromosomal rearrangements, such as deletions, duplications, and inversions.

Role of UV, Ionizing Radiation, and ROS in Mutagenesis

The involvement of ultraviolet (UV) radiation, ionizing radiation, and reactive oxygen species (ROS) in causing DNA damage and mutations.

Basic Mechanism of DNA Recombination in Meiosis

The process by which DNA molecules exchange genetic material during meiosis, resulting in genetic diversity.

Stage of Meiosis when Recombination Occurs

The specific stage of meiosis, prophase I, when recombination occurs.

Evolutionary Advantages of Gene Duplication

The benefits provided by gene duplication, including the generation of raw material for further evolution and the ability to diverge and perform different functions.

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Diploid stage

The stage limited to the zygote produced by fertilization of two haploid gametes.

Meiosis

The process in which the diploid zygote undergoes to produce the haploid phase immediately after.

Mitosis

The process of cell division that occurs only in the haploid phase to produce spores.

Haploid individuals

The individuals produced when spores germinate and grow by mitosis.

Homologous chromosomes

Chromosomes that have the same genes arranged in the same order in the DNA of the chromosome.

Meiosis I

The reductional stage of meiosis where the chromosome number is halved and recombination occurs.

Meiosis II

The equational stage of meiosis where the number of chromosomes remains unchanged, similar to mitosis.

Recombination

The process by which new combinations of alleles are created during meiosis.

Homologous pairing

The process in which homologous chromosomes pair on top of each other to allow for recombination.

Independent assortment

The randomness of alignment of homologous pairs at metaphase I, leading to the independent assortment of alleles of two genes.

Recombination mechanism

The mechanism by which recombination creates new combinations of alleles by exchanging DNA sequences.

Copy number variation (CNV)

The variation in the number of copies of a particular DNA sequence caused by errors in crossing over during recombination.

Mechanism of recombination

The process of cutting and pasting DNA backbones during prophase to facilitate recombination.

Cohesin and synaptonemal complex

Proteins that hold homologous chromosomes together during recombination and regulate sister chromatid separation.

Random alignment

The randomness of alignment of homologous chromosomes at metaphase I, leading to the independent assortment of alleles.

Distance between genes

The more distance between genes along a chromatid, the more likely recombination is to occur between them.

Meiosis as DNA "repair"

Recombination provides variability that increases the chance of advantageous combinations of alleles and can fix bad genes.

Mechanisms of meiosis generating variation

Recombination, independent assortment, and the combination of maternal and paternal chromosomes in gametes.

Aneuploidy

The unbalanced number of chromosomes resulting from non-disjunction or mis-division during meiosis.

Mendel's work

Gregor Mendel's experiments with pea plants that contradicted the blending theory of inheritance and studied characters and their variations.

Mendel's explanatory model

Mendel's model of inheritance involving factors, alleles, dominance, segregation, and independent assortment.

Progeny distribution

The distribution of offspring in monohybrid, dihybrid, and sex-linked crosses based on parental genotypes.

Location of alleles

The particular site on a chromosome at which an allele is located, known as the locus of the gene.

Segregation of alleles

The separation of alleles during meiosis, where half of the gametes carry one allele and the other half carry the other allele.

Number of gametes produced

The number of different gametes produced is determined by the segregation of alleles during meiosis.

Sum and product rule of probability

The rules used to calculate the probability of multiple independent events occurring.

Epistasis

The interaction between genes where one gene can mask the effect of another gene at a different location.

Codominance

The pattern of inheritance where both alleles of a gene are expressed equally in the phenotype.

Incomplete dominance

The pattern of inheritance where the heterozygous phenotype is intermediate between the two homozygous phenotypes.

Incomplete Dominance

Occurs when the effects of recessive alleles can be detected to some extent in heterozygous individuals.

Codominance

When alleles have approximately equal effect in individuals, making the two alleles equally detectable in heterozygous individuals.

Polygenic Inheritance

Several to many different genes contribute to the same character, such as height, skin color, and body weight in humans.

Pleiotropy

Single genes affecting more than one character of an organism.

X Inactivation

The process by which one of the X chromosomes in females is inactivated, resulting in equal activity of most genes carried on the X chromosome in cells of males and females.

Eukaryotic Membrane Protein Production

Transcribed in the nucleus, translated in the cytoplasm, packed by the endoplasmic reticulum (ER), vesicles, and Golgi complex, and then packed in membrane-bound vesicles and taken to the membrane.

Physiology of Skin/Hair Pigmentation

Melanin, produced by melanocytes, determines the color of skin and hair. There are two types of melanin:pheomelanin (yellow to red) and eumelanin (black).

Dominant Alleles

In heterozygotes, the allele that determines the phenotype is the dominant allele.

Spotted Coat Color in Pigs

The S allele derived from the B allele causes red fur with black spots due to mutations in the MC1R gene.

Genetic Equilibrium

The point at which neither allele frequencies nor genotype frequencies change in succeeding generations.

Directional Selection

When individuals at one end of the spectrum are most fit, resulting in a shift of the trait's mean value.

Stabilizing Selection

Individuals expressing intermediate phenotypes have the highest fitness, reducing phenotypic variation in the population.

Disruptive Selection

When extreme phenotypes have increased fitness than intermediates, promoting polymorphism and increasing phenotypic variation.

Gene Pool

The sum of all alleles at all gene loci in all individuals in a population.

Genotype Frequencies

The percentages of individuals possessing each genotype.

Allele Frequencies

The relative abundance of different alleles in a population.

Genetic Equilibrium

The point at which neither allele frequencies nor genotype frequencies change in succeeding generations.

Hardy-Weinberg Principle

A null hypothesis that serves as a reference point for evaluating circumstances where evolution may occur.

Conditions for Genetic Equilibrium

No mutations, no migration, infinite population size, no selection, and random mating.

Effect of Dominance on Allele Frequencies

In the absence of selection, the dominance status of alleles does not affect their frequency.

Effect of Dominance on Response to Selection

Selection against dominant alleles can cause them to disappear, while selection against recessive alleles will decrease their frequency.

Negative Frequency-Dependent Selection

Rare phenotypes have an advantage, maintaining genetic variation in the population.

Positive Frequency-Dependent Selection

Rare phenotypes have a disadvantage, eliminating genetic variation in the population.

Heterozygote Advantage

Heterozygotes have higher fitness, maintaining genetic variation in the population.

Effect of Heterozygote Disadvantage on Genetic Variation

Heterozygote disadvantage decreases genetic variation in the population.

Processes that Reduce Variation

Genetic drift, non-random mating (inbreeding).

Processes that Increase Variation

Gene flow, mutations.

Effect of Non-Random Mating on Allele and Genotype Frequencies

Inbreeding increases the frequency of homozygous genotypes and decreases heterozygous genotypes.

Inbreeding

Increased expression of disease due to mating between closely related individuals.

Genetic Equilibrium

The state in which allele frequencies in a population remain constant over generations.

Assortative Mating

Mating with individuals that have similar phenotypic traits.

Disassortative Mating

Mating with individuals that have different phenotypic traits.

Gene Flow

The transfer of genes from one population to another through the movement of individuals or gametes.

Genetic Drift

Random changes in allele frequencies in a population due to chance events.

Bottleneck Effect

A drastic reduction in population size that leads to a loss of genetic variation.

Founder Effect

A population that is established by a few individuals and has reduced genetic diversity.

Relative Fitness

The reproductive success of a genotype compared to the most successful genotype.