Introduction to Psychology (chapter 1) Meyers

Psychology

The science of behavior and mental process

- Philosophy + Physiology = Psychology, a hybrid science

Wilhelm Wundt

Founder of Psychology

Edward Bradford Titchener

- Built first psychology school, Structuralism

- isolate the mind from the rest

William James

- Built second school of psychology, Functionalism

- divide/separate the mind into different sections

Structuralism

Early school of thought promoted by Wundt and Titchener; used introspection to reveal the structure of the human mind

Functionalism

Early school of thought, promoted by James and influenced by Darwin; explored how mental and behavioral processes function- how they enable the organism to adapt, survive, and flourish

Introspection

A technique used in structuralism in which it involves looking inwards and reporting the contents of one's immediate state of consciousness

B.F. Skinner

A leading behaviorist that rejected introspection and studied how consequences shape behavior

- redefined psychology as the scientific study of observable behavior

Sigmund Freud

Controversial ideas influenced humanity's self-understanding

- Founder of psychoanalysis

- redefined psychology as the scientific study of observable behavior

Freudian psychology

A theory that attributes thoughts and behaviors to unconscious drives and conflicts

- emphasize the ways our unconscious thought processes and our emotional responses to childhood experiences affect our behavior

Behaviorists

The view of psychology should be an objective science that studies behavior without reference to mental processes

Abraham Maslow & Carl Rogers (1960s)

- Emphasized the growth of potential of healthy people

- developed theories and treatments

- found Freudian psychology and behaviorism limiting

Humanistic Psychology

Historically significant perspective that emphasized the growth of potential healthy people

-attention to ways that current environmental influences can nurture or limit our growth potential

- the importance of having our needs for love and acceptance satisfied

Cognitive psychology

Scientifically explores how we perceive, process, and remember information

Behavior

Anything an organism does (ex. breathing, blinking, learning, lying)

Mental Processes

Internal, subjective experiences we infer from behavior

- sensations, perception, dreams, thoughts, beliefs and feelings

Nature vs. Nurture Issue

The longstanding controversy over the relative contributions that genes and experience make to the development of psychological traits and behavior.

Natural Selection

The principal that, among the range of inherited trait variations, those contributing to reproduction and survival will most likely be passed on to succeeding generations

Biopsychosocial approach

An integrated approach that incorporates biological, psychological and social-cultural levels of analysis

Neurobiological Approach

Behavior is the result of physical, chemical or biological abnormalities

Evolutionary

How the natural selection of traits has promoted the survival of genes

Psychodynamic/Psychoanalytical

Behavior is the result of unconscious thoughts and conflicts

Behavioral

Behavior is the result of learning and associations made by experiences

Cognitive

Behavior is the result of storing, processing and retrieving information

Social-cultural

Behavior is the result of how thinking varies across situations and behavior

Basic research

Pure science that aims to increase the scientific knowledge base

- Not trying to answer questions

Biological psychologist

Exploring the links between brain and mind

Cognitive psychologist

Experimenting with how we perceive, think, and solve problems

Social psychologist

Exploring how we view and affect one another

Development psychologist

Studying our changing abilities from womb to tomb (death)

Personality psychologist

Investigating our persistent traits

Psychiatric

A branch of medicine dealing with psychological disorders; who sometimes provide medical (for example, drug) treatments as well as psychological therapy

- medical doctors licensed to prescribe drugs

Positive psychology

The scientific study of human functioning, with the goals of discovering and promoting strengths and virtues that help individuals and communities to thrive

Intuition and Common Sense

• Hindsight bias • judgmental overconfidence

• tendency to perceive patterns in random events

Show that one cannot rely solely on intuition and common sense

Hindsight Bias

The tendency to believe, after learning an outcome, that one would had foreseen it . (I-knew-it-all-along phenomenon)

Overconfidence

The tendency to think one knows more than one does

- be more confidence than correct

Perceiving Order in Random Events

Natural eagerness to make sense of the world, one perceive patterns

Critical Thinking

Thinking that does not blindly accept arguments and conclusion. Rather, it examines assumptions, discerns hidden value, evaluates evidence, and assess conclusion

Theory

A general framework that organizes observations and predicts behaviors or events (both physiological and psychological)

Hypothesis

A testable prediction, often implied by a theory

Replication

Repeating the essence of a research study, usually with different participants in different situations, to see whether the basic finding extends to other participants and circumstances

Case Study

an observation technique in which one person is studied in depth in the hope of revealing universal principles

- Does not explain behavior

Naturalistic observations

Observing and recording behavior in naturally occurring situations without trying to manipulate and control the situation

- Does not explain behavior

Survey

A technique for ascertaining the self-reported attitudes or behaviors of a particular group, usually by questioning a representative, random sample of group

Population

All those in a group being studied, from which samples are drawn

Random sample

A sample that fairly represents a population because each member has an equal chance of inclusion

Correlation

A measure the extent to which two factors vary together, and thus of how well either factor predicts the other

Negative correlation

As one thing increases, the other decreases (inverse)

Positive correlation

Both things either decrease or increase together (direct)

Experiment

A research method in which an investigator manipulates one or more factors (independent variables) to observe the effect on some behaviors or mental process (the dependent variable). By random assignment of participants, the experiment aims to control other relevant factors

Experimental group

In an experiment, the group is exposed to the the treatment, that is, to one version of the independent variable

- Cause and effect between variables

Control group

In an experiment, the group not exposed to the treatment; contrasts with the experimental group and serves as a comparison for evaluating the effect of the treatment

Double-blind procedure

An experimental procedure in which both the research participants and the research staff are ignorant (blind) about whether the research participants have received the treatment or a placebo. Commonly used in drug-evaluation studies

Placebo effect

Experimental results caused by administration of an inert substance or condition, which the recipient assumes is an active agent

Independent variable

The experimental factor that is manipulated; the variable whose effect is being studied

Dependent variable

The outcome factor; the variable that may change in response to manipulation of the independent variable

Culture

The enduring behaviors, ideas, attitudes, values, and traditions shared by a group of people and transmitted from one generation to the next