ana 1 review (hard questions)

what are the most common chemical elemnts in living organisms and what general percentage of body mass

O - 65%

C - 18.5%

H - 9.5%

N - 3.3%

Ca - 1.5%

what is the difference between

molecule vs compound

inorganic molecule vs organic

molecule - 2 or more atoms, O2, N2

compound - molecule of 2 or more different elemnts

inorganic - without C-H covalent bonds

organic - with C-H covalent bonds

why is carbon a good molecule for life

diverse bonds by bonding with 4 other atoms

length, breanching, double bonds, rings

organic molecules are not soluble in water

c-h chains serve as compact energy stores

what are some functional groups

hydroxyl

carboxyl

amino

phosphate

4 major biolgoical molecules?

carbohydrates

nucleic acids

lipids

proteins

what percentage of our bodies are water/fluid, what part of that fluid is ICF and ECF?

55-60% of bodies are fluid

2/3 of which is ICF

1/3 of which is ECF

• 80% intersitital fluid

what are the chemical/physical properties of water and why

polar covalent bonds

• reactant in many biochemical reactions

• interact with ionic bonds

hydrogen bonds

• lubricant

• high heat capacity(takes long time to change temp)

• evaporative cooling (Absorb heat)

describe types of carbohydrates and function

monosaccharides

disaccharides - 2 monosaccharides - glycosidic bond(form water, create bond between 2 hydroxyl)

polysaccharides - many

• starch, glycogen, cellulose

function

• provide energy

• store energy

• component in other molecules - deoxyribose

• structural component - cellulose

describe types of lipids, bonds and saturated vs unsaturated

hydrophobic, mostly CH, little O

glycerol binds to fatty acid with dehydration (H + OH → H2O)

creates ester linakge

saturated fatty acid - no double bonds - straight - SOLID

unsaturated - one or more - BENT, liquid

what is general structure of a protein, how do they form/connect, what are the functions?

amino group, side chain/R group, carboxyl group.

form with peptide bond, between OH and H, form H2O

connect C with N

can be primary, secondary, tertiary, or quaternary

functions

• enzymatic

• defensive - antibodies

• storage -casein, ovalbumin

• transport - hemoglobin

• hormonal - insulin

• receptor

• movement - actin/myosin

• structural - keratin

what is the general structure of a nucleotide?

nitrogenous base,

• pyrimidines C T U

• purines A G

phosphate group,

• connected to nucleotide with phosphodiester bonds

sugar - ribose/deoxyribose

DNA - contain genetic info

RNA - carries copes if othat into tocytoplasm for protein synthesis

ATP - nucleotide as energy

what are the properties of life

Metabolism

• anabollism - synthesis, energy used

• catabolism - breakdown, energy released

responsiveness to environemnt

cellular organization

exchange of materials with envrionment

energy processing, movement

reperoduction, development, growth

what are the levels of structural organization of the body

chemical level

• atoms, molecules

cellular level

tissue level - similar types of cells

organ lelvel - different types of tissues

organ system level - organs working together

organismal - many organ systems

components of the cells and their functions?

endoplasmic reticulum

• smooth - builds fats, stores calcium

• rough - ribosomes, makes/folds/checks proteins

cell membrane - selective barrier

nucleus - home of DNA

ribosomes -

golgi apparatus - ships and receives proteins

lysosomes/vacuoles - contain enzymes, fuse together to digest

mitochondrion - cellular respiration

what are the cellular processes involved in the development of the human body

cell division

cell growth

cell differentation - specialization

• nerve cells, muscle cells, RBC, WBC

describe the structure of a phospholipid

hydrophilic head - phosphate and glycerol

hydrophobic tail - saturated and unsaturated fatty acid

why is the cell membrane a fluid mosaic?

contains a collage of proteins, each with diversity of structures and functions

fluid - not static (unsaturated fatty acids and cholesterol)

what are the mmebrane transport processes

passive processes - conc gradient

• simple diffusion

• osmosis - water via aquaporins/bilayer

• faciltated diffusion - membrane protein

active processes - against conc gradient

• active transport - membrane protein

• bulk transport - vesicle

  • phagocytosis - enfulgment of particles

  • pinocytosis - enfulgment of drops of ECF

  • receptor mediated endocytosis - specific substances

  • exocytosis - remove

hypertonic vs hypotonic

hypertonic - higher solute concentration than a cell - take water out (love water)

hypotonic - lower solute concentraton than cell - push water in (hates water)

what can epithelial tissue be classified in

can be

• squamous - plate like

• cuboidal

• columnar

also be

• simple

• stratified

• pseudostratified

what are some examples of epithelial tissue and their classification

simple squamous - easy transport of materials, capillaries and lungs, digestive cells

squamous stratified - epidermis, lines mouth, vagina

cuboidal simple - thyroid

cuboidal stratified - sweat glands and secretions

simple columnar - absorption of nutrients in intestine

pseudostratified - secrete and propel mucus in airways/trachea

what are neuron tissue cells examples

microglial cells

oligodendrocyte

neuron

astrocyte

what is connective tissue and its classification

tissue that supports binds or protects other tissues/organs

originates from mesenchymal cells(stem cells) → fibroblasts

can be

• proper

  • loose (protein fibers spaced far apart)

    • areolar

    • adipose

    • reticular

  • dense

    • regular

    • irregular

• supportive

  • cartilage

    • hyaline

    • fibrocartilage

    • elastic

  • bone

• fluid

  • blood

  • lymph

what does the extracellular matrix of connective tissue contain (what protein fibers)

collagen - thick and strong

elastic - flexible

reticular fibers - thin, supporting mesh

describe loose areolar (connectice tissue proper)

least specialized

filler between organs

• elastic, collagen fibers

• fibroblast nuclei

describe loose adipose (proper)

ECF is sparse (loose)

adipocytes are TIGHTLY packed, store triglyceries for energy storage and cushioning

abundant in subcutaneous(under skin) layer

describe loose reticular (proper)

support soft organs with abundant reticular fibers

internal skeleton of spleen

describe dense(fibrous) (proper) tissue

can be regular - parallel/strong in one direction (tendons)

irregular - random - strength in multipe directions (dermis)

provide tensile strength with abundant collagen fibers!

describe the types of cartilage

hyaline cartilage - most abundant, costal or trachea

fibro cartilage - strongest, intervertebral discs

elastic cartilage - most flexible, in ear

CHONDROCYTES - cell

describe bone tissue

calcified extracellular matrix makes it hardest

collagen fibers present to prevent brittleness

osteocytes

describe blood

plasma is liquid ECF

RBC most abundant (erythrocytes)

transport gas, nutrients, hormones, waste

describe frog intestine

serosa - epithelium connective tissue

longitiudinal and circular smooth muscle (peristalsis)

submucosa - connective tissue

columnar epithelium - nutrient absorption

villi - creates more SA interaction

describe the 5 main body cavities

dorsal body cavity

• cranial cavity - brain

• vertebral cavity - spinal cord

• thoracic cavity - lungs, heart

ventral body cavity

• vertebral cavity

• abdominal cavity - digestive viscera

• pelvic cavity - urinary bladder, reproductive organs

• abdominopelvic cavity

describe thoracic cavity in detail and membranes

seperated from abdominal cavity by diaphragm

• superior mediastinum

• pleural cavity

• pericardial cavity

pleura - serous membrane

• visceral pleura - cover organs

• parietal - lines body cavity

• pleural cavity - thin fluild filled spaces between

  • pleural fluid

what are the regions of the abdominopelvic cavity?

upper - hypochondriac regions

middle (horizontal) - lumbar region

middle (vertical - epigastric, umbilical, hypogastric

lower - illiac (inguinal region)

describe peritoneum and pericardium serous membranes

pericardium - heart

• visercal pericardium

• parietal pericaridium

• pericardial cavity

peritoneum - stomach, livers, ovaries, intestines

• visceral peritoneum

• pariertal peritoneum

• paritoneal cavity.

what are the body planes

sagittal - left and right

• mid sagittal/median

• parasagittal

  • unequal

frontal - front and back

transverse - top and bottom

what are the organ systems

• integumentary - hair skin nails

• skeletal - bones, joints, cartilage

• muscular - muscles, tendons

• nervous - brain, nerves, spinal cord

• endocrine

• cardiovascular - heart, vessels

• respiratory

• lymphatic - spleen, lymphatic vessels and nodes, thymus

• digestive

• urinary

• reproductive (differs)

what is homeostasis

maintanence of bodys internal envrionment

• temperature, pressure, concentration of substances

• set point and normal range at which variable is maintained

what is the internal environment made out of?

extracellular fluid

• intersitital fluid

• plasma

• lymph

• cerebrospinal fluid

• synovial fluid

• aqueous humour

explain the components of negative feedback systems, what is an example?

7 steps

• stimulus - change

• receptor - detect change

• input - information sent along afferent pathway (this is what happened)

• control center afferent → efferent

  • determine set point

  • compare input within normal range

  • activates effector

• output - info sent along efferent pathway (do this)

• effector - carries out action - reduce effect of stimulus

• response - return variable to set point

thermoregulation

• stimulus - heat

• receptor - thermoreceptors in skin/brain

• input - its hot!

• control center - hypothalamus (thermoregulatory center)

• output - glands need to sweat, vessels must dilate

• effector - glands sweat, vessels dilate

• response - sweating, body temp falls!

what are 2 examples of positive feedback systems

birth

• head of baby pushes against cervix

• nerve impulses sent to brain

• pitutiary gland seretes oxytocin

• stimulates uterine contractions

breastfeeding

• suckling infant sends affect impulses to hypothalamus

• pitutiary gland

• oxytocin released

• alveolar glands response by releasing milk through ducts of nipples

• ceased when baby stops suckling

what are the divisions of the nervous system?

somatic nervous system - skeletal muscle

autonomic nervous system - control of smooth muscle, cardiac muscle and glands

• sympathetic - fight or flight response

• parasympathetic - rest and digest

CNS - Brain, Spinal cord

PNS - Ganglion, Nerve

what is the structure of a nervous tissue and what are the functions of each

cell body - house nucleus

cell membrane - selective membrane

dendrites - receive signal from other neurons

axon - transfer/send signal to neurons

nodes of ranvier - spaces where signal jumps, speeds up

oligodendrocytes - produce myelin sheath

myelin sheath - insulate signal

synapse - junction point?

what are the types of neurons

sensory input → sensory neuron

association neuron (interneuron)

motor neuron → motor output

what are the supporting cells of the nervous tissue?

astrocyte - main supporting cell

• deliever energy, maintain protective walls, clear our neurotransmitters, and control chemical baalnce

microglial cell - immunological protection

ependymal cells - production of CSF

oligodendrocytes - myelin production

whats the difference between tracts and nerves

tracts - central nervous system

• bundles of axons

nerves

• bundles of axons within PNS

  • cranial or spinal

  • all spinal nerves are mixed while others can be sensory, motor, or mixed.

label the nerves of the brain

olfactory bulb 1

optic nerve 2

oculomotor nerve

trochlear nerve 4

trigeminal nerve 5

abducens nerve 6

facial nerve 7

vestibulocochlear nerve 8

glossopharyngeal nerve 9

vargus nerve 10

hypoglossla nerve 12

accessory nerve 11

whats the difference between grey matter and white matter

gray matter

• neuronal CELLBODIES within CNS

• in cerebral cortex, brain nuclei, spinal “horns”

white matter

• tracts within CNS!!!

• exterior spinal cord

• interior of brain

what are ganglia?

• groups of neurons in PNS

  • sensory

  • autonomic

    • sympathetic

    • parasympathetic

describe the brain anatomy

spinal cord connects to medulla oblongata - vital involuntary functions (hearrate)

pons - bulge - regulate sleep wake cycles, breathing rhythms

cerebellum - little brain - balance, precision

pitutary gland

thalamus - middle filters sensory data

hypothalamus - homeostasis

optic schiasma

corpus callosum - coordinate bilaterally, share data between sides

cerebrum

• frontal - logical thinkning, problem solving, speech production

• parietal - somatosensory

• temporal - auditory processing, memory, language

• occipital - visual info

what are the meninges of the brain.

duramater

• periosteal

• meingneal

archnoid mater

pia mater

what are the ventricles of hte brain and how does CSF circulate?

lateral ventricles → third ventricles near diencephalon

→ cerebral aquaduct

→ fourth ventricle (cerebellum)

→ subarachnoid space (around brain and spinal cord)

what is spinal cord anatomy

Cervical 8

Thoaracic - 12

Lumbar - 5

Sacral - 5

Coccygeal - 0

what is the function of the spinal cord and components of a reflex arc?

functions - communcation between brain and periphery

• carry sensory impulses from bbody to brain or

• motor impulses from brain to body

spinal reflexes - no ned for a brain! how does that work?

stimulus → sensory neuron → dorsal root neuron/ganglion → spinal cord → white matter (tracts) → grey mattter → interneuron → motor neuron → hamstring muscle

what is the function of an interneuron?

middlemen

between sensory and motor neurons

take in many signals at once and decides how body should respond

describe the main differences between sympathetic and parasympathetic, where are their pre and post ganglionic neurons?

sympathic - prepare organs for physical activity

• norepinephrine, epinephrine

• adrenal gland

• prioritizes physical activity over digestive system

• preganglionic neurons in spinal cord, post in sympathetic ganglia alongside vertebral column

parasympathetic - rest and digest

• prioritizes digestive system over physical activity

• erection

• slows physical activity, heart, waste excretion

• preganglionic neurons in brainstem and spinal cord, post ganglioninc neurons in parasympathetic ganglia(near or in target organs)

describe the steps of neuron signaling

resting state

depolarization

repolarization

hyperpolarization

resting state at -70mV maintained by

• sodium-potassium pump 3 NA out 2 K in

• protein and phosphate anions inside - negative

• selective permeability, more K than Na+ leak channels, more K+ leaves, than Na+ enter

• gated channels closed

depolarization - stimulus causes Na+ channels open 30/40mV

• if reaches -55mV, action potential triggered (threshold)

• Na+ channels open, Na+ rush in along axon, (electrochemical gradient)

• peaks to +30/40mV

repolarization - Na+ channels close negative mV

• at the peak of action potential, Na stops flowing n

• K+ channels (open slowly) open fully, K rushes in, Na out, MEMBRANE POTENTIAL NEGATIEV

hyperpolarization - voltage k+ channels close slowly(again), drops to -90mV(below resting state)

• continued outflow of K+ causes membrane potential to drop below normal resting level

• refractory period, neuron is far less likely to fire action potential (signal ensured to travel in one direction)

resting state

• K+ channels close, Na K pump restores resting state voltage.

draw the graded potentials of hyperpolarization, depolarization, action potentials

explain the propagation of an action potential at a myelinated axon - saltatory conduction

formed at the nodes of ranvier, gaps in myelin sheath

• voltage gated Na+ channels found here

• one node’s action potential causes electrical ion currents to spread to next node

• “jump” allow faster conduction

what occurs when the action potential reaches the end of axon terminal (synapse) - isimilar to muscle

release neurotransmitters into synapses at axosomatic synapses

synaptic vesicles move towards synaptic clect

voltage gated Ca2+ channels open, ca2+ enters AXON TERMINAL

calcium causes synaptic vesicles to release contents via exocytosis

neurotransmitter diffuses across cleft, binds to ligand gated ion channels on posy sypnatic membrane → neuron GRADED POTENTIALS

how does the signal between neurons get terminated/neurotransmitter

reuptake by presynapic neuron

enzymatic degradation

diffusion reduce neurotransmitter levels, kills signal

what are some neurotransmitters

acetylcholine - muscle - memory

glutamate - excitatory neurotransmitter

GABA - inhibitory neurotransmitter

glycine - inhibitory neurotransmitter

dopamine - motivation, motor control

norepinephrine - wakefulness

serotonin - arousal

what are classification and examples of sensoiry receptors

mechanoreceptors

• distortation of cell membrane

photoreceptors

• light

chemoreceptors

• chemicals, taste, smell, blood vessels

thermoreceptors

• change in termperatuire

• skin and body tissues

nociceptors

• pain, harmful stiuli, extreme temp, pressure chemicals

location:

• exteroceptos

• interoceptoirs

  • baroceptors, thermoreceptors

• proprioceptors

  • golgi tendo organ - tendon stretch

what is the lacrimal apparatus

system cointaing oribital structure

lacrimal sac

lacrimal gland → excretory ducts

lacrimal fluid

• water, salts, mucus, antibodies, lysozyme

• protect, cleans, lubricates eyeball

what is the internal anatomy of the eye like?

Seperated into

Posterior Cavity

• Vitreous CHamber

• Lens

• Cornea

• Iris

• Pupil

Anterior Cavity

• Posterior and Anterior Chambers

• Aqueous humor

Cilliary body - Vascular Tunic

• Cilliary process

• Cilliary muscle -alter shape of lens

Back

• Sclera - protection

• Cornea - Refractive structure - fibrous tunic

• Retina

• Fovea Centralis

• Optic II nerve

• Optic disc

how does image form in the reitna?

Accomodation of hte lens

• light rays hit the lens, diverge into the focal point on the fovea!

• different in close or distant

• close

  • parasympathetic activation

  • cilliary muscle contracts, leigaments loosen, lens buldge

• far,

  • muscle relax, suspensory ligaments tense, lens flatten

constriction of the pupil

• pupillary radial muscles

  • contract, less light intesnsity

• circular muscles contract

  • more light intensity

convergence of the eyes

• six skeletal around the eye, allow it to move in all directions

describe retina

rods

• dim light, peripheral vision

• highest in peripheral retina, decreaes towards fovea

• rhodopsin

cones

• colour vision, highest in fovea, decreaes towards peripheral retina

• cone opsins

what is the visuial pathway

in retina

photoreceptors → bipolar neurons → ganglion neurons → optic nerve →optic chiasma → optic tract → thalamus → optic radiation → visual cortex

LEFT TURNS TO RIGHT AT THE OPTIC CHIASMA

left optic nerve → right optic tract, → right occipital cortex.

what are the cutaneous receptors

free nerve endings - temperatiure/pain - surface

root hair plexus - movement of hair

merkel discs - vibration

meissners corpuscle - light touch - surface - circular

pacinian corpuscle - pressure - midway

ruffini corpuscle - stretch - horizontal

what are proprioceptors

provides information about position of body parts

muscle spindles - stimulated by stretching of muscle, inform muscle length

tendon organs - stimualted by tension in tendon

helpd nervous syste mcoordinate all motor activites

how does smell work?

olfactory bulb

air goes through nasal conchae, diffuse olfactory epithelium

→ olfactory bulb, hits 400 types of olfactor receptors

• dendrite

sends a signal through olfactory tract

how does taste work?

lingual papilla - full of tastebuds

gustattory cell connecting to sensory nerve fiber

sour, bitter, salty ,sweet umamis

what is in the external, middle and inner eat

external - auricle, ear canal

middle - tympanic membrane, malleus, ikncus, stapes connect to tympanic cavity

inner ear - transmitted via stapes at the oval window

• vestibule

• vestibular nerve

• cochlear nerve

• round window - pressure

• cochlea

  • oval window - scala vestibuli

    • vibrations of ossicles into inner ear

  • riound window - scala tympani

    • pressure valve for shock absorption for the fluid waves in cochlea

• eustachain tube - pressure

what are the layers of the inner ear?

bony labyrinth

perilymph (fluid)

• round window allows stapes ti displace perilymph, allow vibration

membranous labyrinth

endolymph

how does the hearing occur

1. sounds waves, alternate, high and low pressure, frequency measured in Hz

2. interacts with the tympanic membrane, vibrates

3. vibrations are amplified as it passes ossicles

4. against oval window, vibrations are transmitted to standing wave in the fluid of hte vestibuli

5. pressure bends the membrane of cochlear duct to a point of maximum vibration for a frequency, hair cells in basilar membrane vibrate.

whats in the organ of corti

• hair cells(vibrate) attached with a tether, stereocillia, tectorial membrane

  • bend against the tectorial membrane

• attach to dendrites of sensory organs, send signal to

• axons of sensory neurons (vestibulocochlear nerve)

• between the scala vestibuli an the scala tympani, surrounded by endolymph in the cochlear duct

what about different frequencies of sound? tonotopic organization

thats where the basilar membrane comes in, different areas vibrate according to different frequences

lower frequenmcies vibrate the membrane closer to the apex 20Hz

higher frequencies closer to the base 20,00-Hz

tonotopic organizatrion!

tectorial membrane stays in place/rigid to create force to move the hairs inbetween the two membranes

stereocillia bend to send a signal

what is the auditory pathway

spiral ganglion → vestibulocochlear nerve

→ brain stem

→ midbrain

thalamus

→ auditory cortex - temporal love

what is conductive deafness and sensorineural deafness

conducttiveness deafness

• impaired by external or middle ear

• otosclerosis - abnormal growth

• injury

• impacted cereumen

sensorineural deafness - organ of corti does not function or nerve is damanged

• drugs

• diseases

• atheroschelerosis

• repeated exposuire to loud soudn

how does balance work?

with the vestibular apparatus of the inner ear

• patches of hair cells found in macula or utricle, sacule and cristia ampullaris of the 3 ampullae.

• endolymph does not move in sync with labyrinth (inertia)

• flexion and extension - anterior duct

• semicircular ducts

ampulla in each canal

• hair cells in with cillia, cupula

• push or pull send impulse to brain

uricle and saccule

• hair cells weighed down with crystals

how does your head detect rotation?

in each semicircular duct, there is a ampulla at the base

in this ampulla is a cupula surrounding the cillia cells. the cupuila bends in opposite direction of rotation due to the inertia of the endolymph. sends a signal thorugh the ampullary nerve

dtect changes in acceleration

how does your head detect head position

saccule - vertical

utricle - horizontal

in each, the macula contains hair cells that are weighed down with otoliths (hair crystals)

bend cillia, generat nerve impulse

what does come lets get sun burned refer to

layers of epidermis - stratified squamous epithelium

stratum corneum - 20-30 dead cells filled with keratin

stratum luteum - dead cells, in thick skin areas

stratum granulosum flattened, dying cells

stratum spinosum - keratinocytes, make keratin

stratum basale - 1 row actively mitotic stem cells, melanocytes, phagocytic cells,

describe hair and structures

composed of shaft and root

hair follice and hair bulb at the deep end

sebaceous gland - oil

arrector pilli

apocrine sweat gland - thick secretion armpits and pubic region - mammary/earwax glands - DEEP in hypodermis

what is the dermis made up of

papillary layer - looser areolar connectivce tissue

• blood vessels, sensory receptors

reticular layer - dense irregular connective tissue

• fibroblasts, coillagen fibres, elastic fibres

what are some functions of the skin

mechanical

dhyradtinve

yub light porea

anbtimnicoriobva

syntehsis of vitamin D

• UV light from 7-dehydrochloesteraol, pre viamitn D

• Calcitriol, nedede for absorption of calcium

describe the process of intramembranous ossification

meseenchymal cell groups into clusters, osteoblasts, form ossificatrion centers.

secrete osteoid, surrounds, become osteocytes iwth osteoblats on the outside.

secrete osteoid, as trabecullar matrix forms.

compact bone starts develop at the surface of the bone, superficial to traveculae, and crowded blood vesels condense into marrow.

describe the process of endochondral ossification

hyaline cartilagem with enlarging chondrocytes - calcify matrix - leave open space

osteoblasts at the peripheral ends start laying bone

osteobats produce spongy bone at the primary ossification center (results in medullary cavity)

chondrocytes die, blood vessels bring in bone cells.

secondary ossification center at epiphyses, retains layer of articular cartilage

epiphyseal cartilage/plate remains aswell, lengthwise reguyated here

chondrocytes on one side growth, other side die, osteoblasts lay down bone

describe bone girth grow (appositional growth)

inside is emptied, outside grows

peritosteum (outside) cells difefernat into osteoblasts, laying down new bone around blood vessels, eventrualyl turn into ostecytes

in endosteum, osteovlasts erode inside, endosteum, releasing calckium into blood nad caibity enlarging.

what factors rate of ossification?

heredity

hormones - growth hormone, insulikn like ghrowth factor, thyroid hormones - stimulare osteoblasts (dwarfism, gigantism)

nutrients - vitamins A - stimulate osteoblasts C - synthesis of collagen D - absorption of calciuim, calcium is a component of bone matrix

physical actiity

whats the difference between axial and appendicular skeleton

axial - support, protection

• skull, hyoid

• vertrbal column thorax

  • Cervical 7

  • Thoracic 12

  • Lumbar 5

  • Sacral 5

  • Coccygeal 4

appendicular - movmenet, locomotion

• shoulder girdle, limbs, hip girdle

what is the structure of a typical vertebra whats at the end at the top

spinous process in the middle, spinal cord in the middle

vertebral foreamen - house spinal cord

transverse process

vertebral body

forms a joint with eachother wit hthe superior and inferior articular proicesses.

at the top, atlas axis complex. axis has dens, goes into atlas at the anetrior arch, posterior arch.

describe the anatomy of the pelvic hip girdle, what are the differences between sexes

female - pubic aerch greater than 90

wider pelvis, heart shaped, larger saccrococcygeal curvature. pelvic brim is larger, circular, wide greater sciatic notch

what are the 4 different types of bone fractures

closed - simple = skin intact

comminuted fracture - chip and splinter bone

open fracture - broken ends pierece skin

greenstin fracture - one sideof bbone bends, ulna n radius