stuarts KQ1- the quest for political stability

COMPLETE

1625 parliament- finance

charles i inherited an empty treasury in march 1625 and secured a £60,000 loan from City merchants but had to call Parliament in June. MPs were angered by the failed Mansfeld campaign and only granted 1 year of tonnage and poundage.

1625 parliament- social

- charles married catholic queen henrietta maria

- he promoted arminians like richard montagu

- bad economy due to plague, troop conscription and billeting

- cadiz expedition

cadiz expedition

late 1625, led by buckingham's nominee viscount wimbledon but failed disastrously. commons discussed impeaching buckingham so charles dissolved parliament.

1626 parliament

in early 1626 charles called another parliament, which again attacked buckingham. to halt impeachment charles dissolved parliament and imposed a forced loan.

forced loan

refusals led to imprisonment and conscription. lord chief justice carew dismissed for oppoing it and in 1627 5 imprisoned knights sued for release (five knights' case) but charles claimed emergency arrest (prerogative) powers, denying them trial.

conflict in 1628

charles needed funds for wars with spain and france, including failure at la rochelle. MPs voted 5 subsidies but presented the petition of right. charles reluctantly agreed but later reasserted his right to tonnage and poundage and punsihed non-paying merchants (eg Richard Chambers was re-imprisoned via Star Chamber). He also appointed Arminian William Laud as Bishop of London.

1628 petition of right

demanded an end to forced loans, imprisonment without trial, martial law and billeting.

buckingham's assassination

august 1628, publicly celebrated despite charles' grief.

conflict in 1629

parliament reconvened and protested breaches of the Petition of Right. charles ordered adjournment but MPs led by Denzil Holles and Sir John Eliot forced through resolutions against arminianism and illegal taxation by holding the Speaker in his chair, leading to charles dissolving parliament and beginning personal rule.

1629 personal rule

dubbed 'eleven years' tyranny'. some historaisn argue he aimed to establish absolute monarchy by imprisoning MPs like John Eliot, but others see his goal as efficient, centralised rule based on his political/religious ideals. initially charles governed through his privy council with trusted advisors like william laud and thomas wentworth.

government and finance 1630-1636

1. 1630 treaty of madrid ends war with spain, cutting annual military costs from £500k to under £70k.

2. charles revived feudal fines and monpoly licenses like soap monopoly in 1634.

3. imposed ship money nationally from 1635 and became an annual levy by 1636, raising £200k a year.

4. enforced distraint of knighthood and fined 9000 landowners for not presenting at his coronation.

church reforms and opposition 1629-36

1. charles and laud enforced arminian reforms emphasising ritual, order and hierarchy

2. puritan practices suppressed and over 100 ministers emigrated to new england

3. the feoffees for impropriations (purtian group) shut down

4. churches ceremonially transformed, decorations and altar moved eastward

5. increased fears of catholicism as queen was catholic and from 1635 there was a papal ambassador

6. william juxon, bishop of london became lord treasurer in 1636 (church and state interlinked)

growing resistance 1636-40

- resistance networks formed via providence island company, led by pym and hampden etc

- 1636 hampden refused ship money and his 1637 trial became a test case, judges narrowly ruled (7-5) in king's favour but hostile public reaction

- 1637 harsh punishments for critics like burton, bastwick and prynne intensified opposition

- by 1639 ship money yielded only 20% as government focus shifted to raising troops for conflict vs scotland

the scottish crisis and collapse 1637-40

charles misunderstood scotland's presbyterian church and imposed reforms. 1639 first bishops' war ended with treaty of berwick after charles' poorly funded militia failed.

reforms in scottish presbyterian church

- 1636 book of canons issued

- 1637 english prayer book introduced and riots in st giles in edinburgh

- 1638 scottish nobles signed national covenant to defend their kirk

fall of personal rule 1640

- impossible to fund war due to 1639-40 taxpayer's strike

- charles called short parliament in apr 1640 but dissolved after 3 weeks when MPs resisted his demands

- second bishops' war 1640: charles' troops sympathised with scots, he lost battle of newburn

- treaty of ripon oct 1640 meant he had to pay scots £850 a day to occupy newcastle

- forced to summon long parliament in nov 1640, ending personal rule desperate and defeated

long parliament nov 1640

john pym and his allies (the junto) attack charles:

• strafford and laud arrested, strafford executed

• triennial act 1641

• act against dissolution without parliament’s consent passed

• ship money and prerogative courts abolished

• ten propositions 1641

triennial act 1641

required parliament every 3 years

ten propositions 1641

demanded parliament’s approval of royal advisors

irish rebellion oct 1641

reports of 200,000 protestant deaths increased fear of a catholic plot

grand remonstrance nov 1641

204 clauses listing royal abuses, passed by only 11 votes

militia bill dec 1641

gave parliament control of the army, moderates sided with king

five members incident 4 jan 1642

charles entered commons with soldiers to arrest pym, hampden etc but they had fled

nineteen propositions 1642

demanded control over army, ministers, and education of royal children - charles rejected

declaration of civil war

aug 1642- charles raised his standard at nottingham

aspects of civil war 1642-43

1. royalists initially dominated, support from gentry, officers, prince rupert

2. battle of edgehill late 1642 was indecisive

3. pym created an excise tax to fund parliament’s army and secured solemn league and covenant with scots

aspects of civil war 1644-46

1. battle of marston moor july 1644 was a major parliamentarian victory

2. military failures by earl of essex led to self-denying ordinance that replaced commanders with professionals

3. 1645 new model army created, 22000 men under sir thomas fiarfax and oliver cromwell was cavalry commander

4. battle of naseby 1645 was a decisive victory, royalist collapse by 1646

5. charles surrendered to scots april 1646

newcastle propositions july 1646

parliament to control militia 20 years, nominate ministers, and abolish bishops, proposed while charles was captive

settlement proposals offered to charles after civil war

• newcastle propositions

• scots wanted a presbyterian church for 3 years

• representation of the army 1647 demanded purging of MPs and religious toleration

• heads of proposals 1647- moderate army plan, 10 year militia control and biennial parliaments

putney debates 1647

levellers, led by rainsborough, demanded universal male suffrage/equality, opposed by ireton and cromwell

charles’ escape 1647

recaptured at carisbrooke and made a secret engagement in dec with scots for support in exchange for presbyterianism

second civil war

apr-aug 1648, scots invaded but defeated by cromwell at preston

army remonstrance nov 1648

demanded charles’ trial after second civil war

pride’s purge 5 dec 1648

colonel thomas pride excluded 186 MPs and arrested 45, creating rump parliament

trial of charles i

found guilty of treason and executed outside whitehall jan 1649

rump parliament’s challenges 1649-1653

1. lack of legitimacy

2. depended on new model army to maintain order

3. royalist threats (ireland and scotland supported charles ii)

rump’s failure to gain support

gentry distrusted them and army suppressed leveller uprisings like burford mutiny in 1649

rump’s lack of reform

hale commission 1651’s legal reform recommendations ignored, number of acts passed fell from 125 in 1649 to 51 in 1652, and economic/social issues not addressed

rump’s financial pressures

• wars in ireland, scotland and first anglo dutch war expensive

• monthly assessment raised to £90,000 equal to charles i’ entire annual revenue

• had to sell crown lands but still £700,000 deficit by 1653

rump’s military campaigns

• irish campaign involved massacres at drogheda and wexford, victory but brutal

• scottish campaign had victories at dunbar and worcester that destroyed royalist hopes

conflict between army and rump

• army wanted godly reform but MPs wanted stability and moderation

• rump resisted reforms favoured by army eg religious toleration, law reform

• cromwell frustrated with parliamentary self interest

dissolution of rump apr 1653

MPs planned new elections that would bring in more conservatives and block reform so cromwell forcibly dissolved rump, saying it was corrupt and self serving, so power shifted to cromwell and army who set up nominated assembly

1653 nominated assembly/barebones parliament

members nominated by independent churches and army officers, total 140

nominated assembly reforms

• continued war with dutch

• legal measures to help debtors

• regulation of treatment of the mentally ill

nominated assembly problems

split between radicals (fifth monarchists) and conservative gentry, conservatives opposed radical measures eg abolishing tithes

dissolution of nominated assembly dec 1653

moderates dissolved it themselves, first protectorate parliament forms

first protectorate parliament 1654-1655

instrument of government became england’s first written constitution, cromwell becomes lord protector, parliaments elected every 3 years, freedom of worship (except catholics and episcopalians) and state church maintained

first protectorate parliament achievements/problems

• 84 ordinances issued that improved roads, banned cock fighting, bear baiting and drunkenness

• MPs refuse to recognise instrument of government, questioning cromwell’s legitimacy

dissolution of first protectorate parliament

dissolved by cromwell in jan 1655, led to rule of major generals

rule of major generals 1655-56

england divided into 11 districts, each ruled by a major general, funded by 10% tax on royalist estates

rule of major generals success/failures

some zealously closed alehouses, banned horse racing and plays, others were ineffective and unpopular, military rule became increasingly unpopular with the gentry, replaced by second protectorate parliament

second protectorate parliament and humble petition and advice 1656-58

parliament elected in 1656 and 1657 parliament offers humble petition and advice

humble petition and advice 1657

• government b a king/lord protector with lords and commons

• hereditary succession

• parliament control army and ministers

• regular elections and some religious toleration

• parliament offers cromwell the crown

response to humble petition and advice

cromwell refuses crown due to army opposition and religious conviction but remains lord protector, new constitution stabilises gov temporarily

death of oliver cromwell

1658, succeeded by richard cromwell who lacked military experience or authority

1. calls third protectorate parliament in 1659 but undermined by army officers

2. may 1659 forced to resign so rump restored by army

3. general monk, commander in scotland, marches south and restores a free parliament in 1660, restoration of monarchy

reasons for restoration in 1660

1. political chaos and military fatigue

2. general monck 

3. declaration of breda

4. desire for stability

reasons for restoration- political chaos and military fatigure

richard lacked military authority and political skill, and power vacuum created (army divisions, return of rump, riots in london)

reasons for restoration- general monck

he orchestrated re-entry of secluded MPs from 1648 purge and dissolved long parliament in feb 1660, leading to election of convention parliament

reasons for restoration- declaration of breda

convention parliament and charles ii (exiled in netherlands) issued it in apr 1660, promising:

• amnesty for most involved in civil war

• religious toleration

• cooperation with parliament

• army arrears to be paid

these moderate terms reassured parliament and army, allowing a peaceful restoration

reasons for restoration- desire for stability

after 20 years of upheaval many wanted order and restoration of traditional monarchy, it occurred without bloodshed- “a conservative revolution”

restoration settlement- unconditional return

charles’ return was not bound by formal conditions and created ambiguity over whether sovereignty rested with parliament or king

convention parliament 1660

• restored monarchy, lords and church

• abolsihed prerogative courts (star chamber, high commission)

• retained 1641 triennial act and parliamentary control of militia

cavalier parliament 1661-79

• strong royalist majority, seeking revenge not reconciliation

• 1661 militia act gave sole command over army to king

• triennial act 1664 weakened, no enforcement clause

• led to unclear limits on royal prerogative and parliamentary rights- long term constitutional tension

savoy conference 1661

failed to find compromise between anglicans and moderate puritans

act of uniformity 1662

restored laudian anglicanism, expelled 1800 ministers who refused conformity

corporation act 1661

only anglicans could hold local office

conventicle act 1664

punished dissenting meetings

five mile act 1665

barred nonconformist ministers from towns

restoration- financial settlement

abolition of feudal tenures removed key royal revenues to king received £1.2m a year from customs/excise and 1662 hearth tax underperformed, only 1/3 collected, so king still financially dependent on parliament

why restoration collapsed by 1688

• constitional issues eg ambiguity in king/parliament balance of power

• harsh anglicanism alienated nonconformists

• exclusion crisis revealed a deep divide over succession and faith

• dependence on french subsidies from treaty of dover made monarchy look subservient to catholic france

• parliament increasingly resisted royal control of money and military

• open catholicism, use of prerogative power and violation of test acts alienated whigs and tories

• birth of catholic heir lead to fear of catholic dynasty

• political elite invited william of orange to invade

conflict between king and parliament 1660-62

charles claimed he has reigned since 1649 (asserts divine right), he is financially dependent on parliament, he issues declaration of indulgence to tolerate dissenters but pressured to withdraw from strongly anglican parliament, parliament passes act of uniformity to enforce strict anglicanism

conflict between king and parliament 1665-67

• second anglo dutch war (over trade but secretly supports france against protestant dutch)

• great plague and fire of london blamed on catholic plots

• 1667 duthc raid the medway, leading to a humiliating english defeat (parliament blames clarendon although he opposed the war, he is dismissed)

conflict between king and parliament 1668-73

• james duke of york (king’s brother) publicly becomes catholic

• 1670 secret treaty of dover

• 1672 second declaration of indulgence

• 1672 stop of the exchequer- charles halts debt repayments, financial crisis forces recall of parliament

• parliament forces withdrawal of indulgence, passes test acts so clifford and james resign and charles appoints protestant earl of danby as lord treasurer

secret treaty of dover 1670

public anglo-french alliance against dutch but secret- charles converts to catholicism to receive a french subsidy that frees him from parliament

second declaration of indulgence 1672

suspends penal laws against dissenters and catholics but parliament objects as it violates rule of law by suspending acts without consent

test act 1673

requires officials to deny catholic doctrine

popish plot 1678

titus oates alleges a catholic plot to murder the king and replace him with james, death of a magistrate makes it believable and evidence from james’ secretary fuels panic and anti-catholic hysteria, 35 alleged conspirators exiled/killed

1679-81 exclusion crisis

• 1679 danby impeached for taking french bribes and charles dissolves cavalier parliament and new whig parliament elected that seeks to exclude james from succession

• 1679 first exclusion bill passes commons, charles dissolves parliament before it reaches lords

• 1680 second exclusion bill defeated in lords after charles intervenes

• 1681 charles calls parliament at oxford, whigs reintroduce exclusion so charles dissolves parliament permanently

• charles rules without parliament as secret deal with french renewed

whigs

reformers, anti-catholics

tories

royalist, pro-anglican defenders of hereditary monarchy

charles ii personal rule 1681-83

he dissolves oxford parliament and begins personal rule funded by french subsidies, ending exclusion crisis and defeating whigs, whig leader earl of shaftesbury charged with treason

rye house plot 1683

plan by old cromwellian soldiers to assassinate charles and replace him with duke of monmouth, plot uncovered giving an excuse to crush remaining whigs, charles remodels borough charters and tightens crown control over local gov and future elections to ensure more loyal, tory-dominated parliaments

death of charles ii

1685, succeeded by catholic brother james ii, no serious opposition to the ascension

1685 monmouth’s rebellion in dorset

he invades to claim throne but defeated at sedgemoor, rebellion crushed brutally and monmouth executed

1685 james’ parliament

very loyal, grants generous financial settlement so james has financial independence, sometimes called ‘second stuart despotism’ as monarchy appears dominant again

james’ goals

religious freedom for catholics and royal control over church and parliament

james ii’s 1685 personal dispensations

allows catholics as army officers, violates test acts

godden v hales case 1686

court rules king can dispense with the law whenever he wishes, confirms royal prerogative above statute, threatening rule of law

establishment of ecclesiastical commission 1686

revives powers of old high commission, disciplines church, seizes property, installs catholics and magdalen college oxford fellows expelled and replaced by catholics

1687 declaration of indulgence

grants freedom of worship to catholic and protestant dissenters, an attempt to promote catholic supremacy

collapse of royal power 1688

apr james reissues declaration of indulgence, ordering it to be read in every church but 7 bishops refuse and in june bishops acquitted amid public celebration (symbolic rejection of royal authority)

birth of james’ son creates prospect of catholic hereditary dynasty

invitation to wiliam

july 1688- ‘the immortal seven’ send a letter of invitation to william of orange, signatories included whigs and tories, showing national unity against james

reasons for invitation to william

1. defend protestantism and rule of law

2. williams wants to draw england into war against france and protect dutch

arrival of william of orange

lands in devon with dutch army nov 1688, james hesitates and support for him collapses as key officers defect

james flees to france

dec 1688, seen as abdication so william and mary invited to rule jointly, james avoids execution/trial, preventing martyrdom and civil war

glorious revolution

end of divine right monarchy, william and amry crowned after accpeting bill of rights, confirming parliamentary sovereignty, protestant succession and rule of law